GEOGRAPHY A LEVEL(FORM SIX) NOTES – 5.1 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT(3)

Tea Growing Areas in India

Most of India’s tea is grown on large estates concentrated in three main areas:

1. Assam: This includes Assam hills and Khasi hills at an altitude of around 1070m, in the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. Assam produces the greatest yield due to large estates covering thousands of hectares. Each estate is a self-contained community with good factories equipped with up-to-date machinery for processing and grading.
2. Darjeeling: This district is on the southern slopes of the Himalayan hills. The best tea comes from this region.
3. Kerala: This area includes Nilgiris Hill (where tea is mainly grown at heights of over 1200m, receiving rainfall ranging from 1500mm to 2500mm), the upper slopes of the Western Ghats, and Cardamom hills. Production in the Nilgiris Hills of Southern India is less important but of high quality.

Importance of Tea Growing in India

1. It is a good example for third world countries to emulate, combining both large scale and small holdings to promote the economic position of both large-scale and small farmers.
2. It has helped solve the problem of employment by creating opportunities for the rapidly growing population.
3. It has made India highly reputed as a leading tea producer in the world.
4. Social services and people’s living standards have improved greatly.
5. It has encouraged industrial development. For example, capital generated from tea has been reinvested in industries like textile and bicycle manufacturing.
6. Tea production has stimulated the improvement and expansion of transport and communication systems.

Limitations of Tea Production in India

Despite its success, India, like other tea-producing countries, faces some problems:

1. High population pressure on land; the area is overpopulated with a density of 223 persons per sq. km.
2. In some places, farmers still use old methods and live traditionally. Small, fragmented plots make mechanization, irrigation, drainage, and pest control difficult.
3. Rainfall is seasonal and unreliable.
4. Competition from other crops, especially cereals like rice, wheat, millet, and cash crops like cotton and rubber.
5. Emergence of other tea-producing countries such as Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh poses stiff competition.
6. Tea production is costly for small and poor farmers due to the need for skills and high capital for equipment and machinery.
7. Malnutrition and diseases cause poor health, limiting effective engagement in production.
8. Price fluctuations in the world market discourage farmers.
9. Frequent earthquakes disrupt life and destroy infrastructure, common due to India’s location on converging plate tectonic boundaries.
10. Frequent conflicts, such as the Kashmir conflict with Pakistan, lead to labor unrest affecting agriculture.
11. Erosion caused by excessive land clearing due to population growth leads to soil destruction and declining tea production.
12. Soil fertility has declined due to many years of constant land use following population increase.

Map Diagram:

Oil Palm in Nigeria

Unlike cocoa and rubber (both of which originated in Tropical America), the oil palm is indigenous to West Africa, and Nigeria is regarded as its original home. It is grown widely throughout the forest zone, especially in the South-East around Port Harcourt in the palm belt. The palm belt has ideal conditions for growing oil palm because of heavy rains of about 1500mm, enough sunshine, well-drained soil, and labor availability due to high population.

Conditions Required for Oil Palm Production

1. Heavy, well-distributed rainfall of about 1,500mm to 2030mm per annum.
2. Well-drained soil with frequent fertilizer application.
3. High humidity is ideal.
4. High temperatures of at least 21°C and plenty of sunshine.
5. No strong winds; windbreakers should be set up to protect trees.
6. Plenty of cheap labor for weeding, harvesting, and transporting products to oil mills.
7. Oil mills should be situated close to navigable rivers and on flat land to facilitate road and railway construction.
8. Easy transport to the factory is necessary.

Farm Preparation, Cultivation, and Harvesting

The land is first cleared and cultivated. Young palms are raised in nurseries and later transplanted to the field. Cover crops are usually planted between trees. Care is needed to keep weeds away, inspect for pests, and apply spraying and pruning as necessary.

Fruits are harvested weekly during the harvesting period and should be pressed immediately to prevent deterioration.

Farm Organization

There are both plantations and small holdings in Nigeria. Oil palm is largely grown in villages by peasants. Some peasants use simple hand methods for extraction, but plantations use mechanized methods. Many villages have their own oil press, and oil is sold to traders who arrange for export. The crop helps farmers earn cash and protein. Over 90% of production comes from smallholder farmers, with the rest from plantations.

Uses of Oil Palm

1. Oil palm yields two kinds of oil: palm oil from the fleshy pericarp and palm kernel oil from the kernel. The oil is used for cooking fat, margarine, soap, candles, and cleansing agents.
2. Waste material may be used as fuel, and oil residue may be used as fertilizer or animal feed.
3. The trunks can be tapped to yield an alcoholic drink known as palm wine.
4. Oil palm products can be exported to generate foreign currency.

Factors Which Favored the Development of Oil Palm Production in Nigeria

1. Warm conditions in southern Nigeria due to the oceanic Guinea current.
2. Moist or humid conditions influenced by the ocean and forest trees.
3. Good fertile soil encouraging oil palm production.
4. Heavy rains in the forest region supporting growth.
5. Use of improved varieties with short trees and thicker pericarp yielding more.
6. Large-scale production on plantations and mechanized methods; estates account for 10% of total output.
7. Transport and communication improvements.
8. Payment of bonuses to farmers encouraging quality.
9. Research and use of centralized mills contributing to development.

Decline in Palm Oil Production

The decline in oil palm production is due to:

1. Government encouragement of basic food crop production to minimize imports, leaving some farms uncultivated and reducing oil palm planting.
2. Poor extraction methods due to low capital among peasants unable to invest in mechanized production.
3. Rapid population growth leading to increased focus on food production.
4. Diseases such as Anthracnose, Freckle, and Blast affecting plants; prevention includes spraying and careful cultivation.

Rubber

Rubber does not grow well in East Africa. In West Africa, the largest rubber producers are Liberia and Nigeria, with smaller amounts produced by Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana. Rubber is native to Brazil; Malaysia also produces rubber.

Rubber in Liberia

Rubber growing in Liberia started as far back as 1910 when the British planted 80 hectares at Mt. Barclay near Monrovia but later abandoned the project due to falling world prices. Initially, rubber production came from foreign-owned plantations, but today Liberian farmers account for an increasing proportion of production.

The most important producer is the American-owned Firestone Company, which obtained a 99-year lease in 1926 to establish rubber plantations. The company established a large plantation at Harbel near Monrovia and a smaller one near the Cavalla River. In the 1980s, the Cavalla plantation stopped production due to falling rubber prices.

About 120,000 hectares are devoted to rubber production in Liberia, with 60,000 hectares belonging to Liberian farmers who produce approximately 20% of Liberia’s total production of 80 million kgs of rubber.

Rubber production in Liberia is organized in plantations and small holdings. Small farmers produce less than 29% due to inefficient farms, absentee landlords, and poor-quality trees.

Factors That Facilitated the Development of Rubber Production in Liberia

1. Failure of Henry Ford’s plantations in the Amazon Basin in the 1920s due to labor shortages, diseases, and transport problems, leading Firestone to establish plantations in Liberia.
2. Effects of World War II, especially when Malaysia was overrun by Japan.
3. Conducive warm, humid climate and well-drained soils.
4. Liberia’s accessibility.

Uses of Rubber

1. Making rubberized waterproof materials.
2. Making rubber shoes and boots (rubber soles).
3. Making insulating materials for electrical implements and wires.
4. Making carpet backings.
5. Making vehicle tires, facilitating transport systems.

Importance of Rubber Growing in Liberia

1. Creates employment; about 35% of wage earners in Liberia work in the rubber industry.
2. Contributes to foreign exchange earnings.
3. Assists Liberian farmers who earn cash and receive support such as seeds and advice.
4. Stimulates development of other sectors like coffee, oil palm, rice, banana, and livestock research.
5. Establishes infrastructure such as roads, health units, schools, and recreational facilities.

Problems Facing Rubber Growers in Liberia

1. Difficulty investing large capital due to long time from planting to harvesting.
2. Stiff competition from other countries like Ivory Coast and Malaysia.
3. Small farmers lack experience, producing poor-quality rubber.
4. Competition from synthetic rubber made from oil.
5. Price fluctuations discourage production.
6. Unfavorable weather conditions like heavy rains interrupt tapping.
7. Reliance on cheap labor, which may be unavailable or expensive.
8. Competition from other sectors like iron mining.
9. Labor unrest due to political problems and wars.

The Future of Natural Rubber

Natural rubber has a bright future due to:

1. Its good natural quality compared to less durable artificial rubber.
2. Lower production costs than artificial rubber.
3. Natural rubber is renewable, unlike synthetic rubber made from petroleum.
4. Family planning and AIDS control programs promoting condom use increase rubber demand.
5. Greater need for expanding transport systems increases demand for tires and rubber.

However, further rubber production in Liberia depends on political stability and technological improvements among farmers.

Map Diagram:

Rubber Plantation in Malaysia

Rubber was introduced in Malaysia by the British in 1878. They established plantation agriculture on the western side of the Malay Peninsula.

Factors That Facilitated the Establishment of Rubber Plantations in Malaysia

1. Already established transport systems of railway, roads, and port links.
2. Availability of large and unpopulated forest land.
3. Conducive wet and hot climate with average temperatures about 32°C all year round.
4. High rainfall all year round (about 2540mm), with wettest areas receiving up to 6480mm annually.
5. Relief that allowed establishment of transport systems.
6. Cheap labor availability from Malays and immigrants from India.
7. Rubber is produced both in plantations and small holdings.

Malaysia produces about 25% of the world’s rubber. Half of Malaysia’s rubber is produced on government-run plantations, and the other half by smallholders on the eastern side of the peninsula. Smallholders receive financial support from the government. Production is affected by price fluctuations and competition from synthetic rubber, but there has been a revival due to increased condom demand related to the AIDS scare. Malaysia produces 60% of the world’s condoms.

Cocoa Growing in Ghana

Ghana is one of the leading cocoa producers in the world, second to Côte d’Ivoire in West Africa.

Organization

Cocoa growing in Ghana is organized entirely on small holdings, undertaken by small farmers on plots ranging from 2.5 to 4 hectares.

Factors Leading to the Development of Cocoa Production in Ghana

1. High temperatures around 27°C.
2. Heavy rains ranging from 1250mm to 2000mm.
3. Forest trees providing shade and acting as windbreakers.
4. Undulating surface facilitating drainage and development of deep, fertile loamy soils.
5. Cheap smallholder farming with family labor, low capital needs, higher product quality, easier disease control, and faster improvement of living standards.

Location of Cocoa in Ghana

Main cocoa lands are in the south, between Koforidua and Sunyani, where rainfall is heavier and land is slightly higher. Ashanti is the chief cocoa-producing area, with Kumasi as the center. Accra, Kumasi, and Takoradi form a triangle with the greatest cocoa concentration.

Importance of Cocoa to Ghana

1. Cocoa is the greatest money earner, accounting for 60% of exports, shipped to America and Europe.
2. It has promoted income and living standards of peasant farmers.
3. It has encouraged development of towns like Kumasi, Takoradi, and Accra.
4. It has stimulated transport and communication development, e.g., Takoradi port.
5. It has earned Ghana international repute and improved social services like education and health.
6. It has encouraged development of industries and other sectors like mining through reinvestment of cocoa earnings.

Trend of Cocoa Production in Ghana

Cocoa production has declined due to:

1. Predominance of old trees not replaced, reducing yield.
2. Lack of disease and pest control due to poor farming methods; fungal diseases like black pod, swollen root, manilla, witches broom, and pests like capsid cause problems. Swollen root is managed by cutting and burning infected trees; capsid is controlled by insecticide spraying.
3. Poor farm management due to lack of managerial skills.
4. Low government incentives, though recent emphasis on improved methods like spraying.
5. Climatic problems: insufficient rainfall in the north and excessive rainfall in the southwest encourage fungal diseases.
6. Predominance of low-quality varieties with low yield per hectare.
7. Price fluctuations discouraging farmers; in the 1970s, excess cocoa was discarded due to lack of market.
8. Limited mechanization due to traditional methods.
9. Frequent fires causing crop devastation and low yield.

Map Diagram:

Coconut Production in Tanzania

Coconuts are typical of coastal plains in tropical areas where conditions are favorable:

1. High temperatures of about 30°C.
2. Heavy rainfall above 1500mm per annum.
3. Well-drained sandy soils; tolerates salty soils.

Coconuts are both cash and food crops; roughly half of the coconuts grown are consumed by growers.

Uses

Coconut coir is used for making ropes and carpets. Oil is extracted from copra; residues feed poultry. Coconut wine is made from the sap. Leaves and trunks provide materials for shelter; hard shells are made into utensils. Coconut oil is used for margarine and soap production.

Trees are grown in small fields and plantations. The Tanzanian government established coconut schemes in Tanga, Mtimbwani, Mkwaya, and Kerge Ujamaa village. In Zanzibar, coconuts are grown throughout the island, especially in Chwaka, Uroa, Paje, Mangapwani, and Makunduchi. Factories include:

1. The coir factory at Mtoni making carpets, ropes, and baskets.
2. The copra factory at Mtoni drying copra and extracting oil for cooking, margarine, or export. Poorer quality oils go to the soap factory in Kwahani; residues are used for cattle feed.

In Pemba, coconuts are extensively grown but fewer than in Zanzibar, with some coconut oil extraction industries.

Problems of Coconut Cultivation in Tanzania

1. Low production due to predominance of small farmers using poor methods.
2. Tall coconut varieties make harvesting difficult.
3. Low priority given to coconuts compared to faster-growing crops.
4. Low government support; Zanzibar is advantaged due to processing factories.
5. Old trees dominate mainland Tanzania; new short varieties are being introduced.
6. Competition from other countries like Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.
7. Labor shortages due to migration to towns for other activities.

Suggestive Conclusion

The government should pay more attention to coconut production. Advantages include:

1. Low investment required; affordable for small farmers.
2. No need for advanced specialized knowledge.
3. Self-propagation ability.
4. Many uses; almost every part of the coconut palm is used. Advanced factories and good short varieties should be introduced. Marketing, transport, and communication systems should be improved. New areas like Rufiji Basin should be opened for larger plantations.

5.2 Livestock (Pastoral) Husbandry

Livestock or pastoral husbandry is the rearing of animals and birds such as goats, cattle, sheep, and poultry.

It can be divided into traditional (subsistence) and modern (commercial) livestock farming.

Traditional (Subsistence) Livestock Farming Systems

A. Nomadic Pastoralism

• Also called nomadic herding.
• Pastoralists constantly move in search of pasture and water; a person who moves is called a nomad.
• Extensive and subsistence in nature; animals are kept for food, not sale.
• Examples: Fulani in West Africa (Lake Chad to Jos plateau), Maasai in East Africa (Tanzania and Kenya), Nubia in Ethiopia, Hottentots in South Africa, Tuareg in the Sahara.

Characteristics of Nomadic Pastoralism

1. Cattle are kept for prestige and bride price, not for sale.
2. Breeding is uncontrolled.
3. Herds are large.
4. Land is commonly owned, causing overgrazing and soil degradation.
5. Diseases are common due to poor care and lack of vaccination.
6. Low technology involved.
7. Animals are of poor quality and low value.
8. Occurs in sparsely populated areas.
9. Low cost system.
10. No permanent settlement; constant movement.
11. No crop cultivation; animals are sole support.
12. Many animals graze on the same field.

Advantages of Nomadic Pastoralism

1. Cheap system; no advanced technology needed.
2. Assures family food availability when animals are many.
3. Traditional animals are resistant to diseases and environmental hardships.

Disadvantages of Nomadic Pastoralism

1. Poor production and low-value animals.
2. High animal mortality due to disease and pests.
3. Time wasted moving; no settlement for other activities.
4. Overgrazing and movement cause vegetation destruction, desertification, and soil erosion.
5. Unsuitable for high population areas due to land needs.
6. Poor storage facilities cause losses.
7. Conflicts with wildlife conservation and cultivators during movement.

What Should Be Done?

1. Educate farmers on new and advanced technology.
2. Reduce animal numbers (destocking) for better management.
3. Encourage keeping good quality breeds like hybrids.
4. Government support to improve farming systems.
5. Encourage settlement to engage in crop production and other activities.
6. Disease control through dipping and vaccination.
7. Improve marketing, transport, and communication systems.
8. Grow grass through irrigation for reliable pasture supply.

B. Semi-nomadic (Semi-sedentary) Pastoralism

1. Farmers settle and begin growing crops like maize, millet, and sorghum alongside keeping animals.
2. Some use cattle dung as manure. Examples include Sukuma of Tanzania and Karamajong of northern Uganda.

Reasons for Decreasing Nomadism

1. Improved techniques allow production without shifting.
2. Governments encourage settlement to save time, energy, and protect the environment.
3. Population growth forces intensive rather than extensive livestock farming.

C. Sedentary Livestock Farming

Farmers keep animals while settled permanently in one place without moving.

Factors leading to change from nomadic to sedentary pastoralism include:

1. Advancement in technology and education making settlement more economical.
2. Population increase reducing pastureland size, making nomadism impractical.
3. Government insistence on settlement for easier assistance and management.
4. Environmentalist advocacy for settlement to conserve resources.
5. Pastoralists engaging in other activities like fishing, lumbering, and crop production.

Characteristics of Sedentary Livestock Farming

1. Uses more advanced technology than nomadic systems.
2. Animals kept in smaller numbers.
3. Animals kept in sheds; some fed fodder indoors (zero grazing).
4. Disease control is practiced.
5. Occurs in high population areas, e.g., slopes of Kilimanjaro among the Chagga.

Advantages of Sedentary Livestock Farming

1. Animals are healthier, yielding more.
2. Better care and disease control due to fewer animals.
3. Less time wasted moving.
4. Easier access to assistance like education and veterinary services.
5. Animal population can be easily counted.
6. Encourages environmental conservation.
7. Allows engagement in other activities, improving living standards.
8. Manure can be used in crop farms.
9. Provides balanced diet with proteins and carbohydrates.

Transhumance

Transhumance involves seasonal movement of people with their animals, differing from nomadism by having permanent settlements. The Fulani in West Africa practice this system, moving from Lake Chad to Jos plateau and southern Niger along the River Niger. They migrate northwards during rainy season (May–October) and southwards during dry season in search of pasture and water. Tsetse fly infestation is a major problem during movement.

Factors Determining Sedentary Livestock Agriculture in Africa

1. Climate: Sedentary livestock farming develops where rainfall supports pasture growth.
2. Soil: Good soil supports pasture and farming; poor soil hinders development.
3. Nature of pasture: Palatable pasture encourages development.
4. Political stability: Peace encourages settlement and farming.
5. Government policy: Supportive policies promote sedentary farming; e.g., ranches in Kenya and Tanzania.
6. Technology: Higher technology encourages settlement and production.
7. Transport system: Good transport facilitates development.
8. Market availability: Good markets encourage farming.
9. Capital availability: Capital investment promotes advanced farming.

Problems Caused by Sedentary Livestock Farming

1. Land degradation due to overgrazing and vegetation clearing.
2. Environmental pollution from methane gas and chemicals.
3. Decline of other sectors due to capital diversion.
4. Conflicts when animals stray into crop farms.
5. Diseases affecting animals and humans if not controlled.

Problems Facing Subsistence Livestock Farming in East Africa

1. Low capital for investment.
2. High disease incidence.
3. High population growth forcing food production over sale.
4. Poor storage and processing facilities.
5. Poor transport and communication.
6. Poor animal varieties.
7. Low technology use.
8. Religious beliefs restricting certain animals.
9. Prestige attached to keeping many animals.
10. Poor climatic conditions like inadequate rainfall.
11. Poor quality and unpalatable pasture.
12. Rural-urban migration causing labor shortages.
13. Cattle rustling discouraging farming.
14. Poor marketing systems and low purchasing power.
15. Limited government support and poor coordination.
16. Socio-cultural factors and expensive medical services.

What Should Be Done?

1. Introduce high-yield, quality breeds.
2. Provide comprehensive education to farmers.
3. Government involvement in policy, financing, and combating rustling.
4. Encourage settlement and organization among farmers.
5. Improve marketing systems and product pricing.
6. Encourage destocking to match land carrying capacity.
7. Improve transport and communication for product distribution.
8. Develop irrigation for constant supply of good pasture.
9. Enhance disease control through fumigation, dipping, and inoculation.
10. Improve water supply through boreholes, reservoirs, and dams.

Factors Limiting Ranch Development in East Africa

1. Water scarcity due to frequent droughts.
2. Remoteness and poor transport and communication.
3. Pests and diseases affecting animals and people.
4. Lack of capital among small farmers.
5. Climate vagaries causing seasonal pasture supply.
6. Ignorance and lack of attention to livestock farming.
7. High costs of running ranches.
8. Poor marketing systems.
9. Poor processing and preservation facilities.
10. Socio-cultural factors.

Problems Caused by Agriculture

1. Deforestation leading to desertification due to poor cultivation and livestock methods.
2. Soil degradation from land exposure after tree cutting.
3. Environmental pollution from methane, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and chemicals.
4. Soil fertility depletion due to monoculture, especially plantations.
5. Conflicts between pastoralists and cultivators, e.g., Kilosa case in Morogoro.
6. Decline in agricultural production due to drought, disease, and fertility loss.
7. Population pressure leading to land scarcity.
8. Large-scale agriculture causing decline in other economic sectors due to capital use.