GEOGRAPHY A LEVEL(FORM SIX) NOTES – 5.1 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT(2)

The Problems Facing the Farming Sector in South Africa

1. Water shortage: Most of South Africa receives little rainfall. Large parts, especially in the West, are semi-arid, and the rivers do not contain enough water. Dams experience silting. The available water is insufficient and faces high competition from sectors like mining, manufacturing, and tourism.
2. Labor shortage: Competition from more lucrative sectors such as mining, manufacturing, and tourism causes people to leave agriculture, leading to labor shortages on farms.
3. Labor shortage is also caused by political and social unrest persisting since the Apartheid era. Some vestiges of apartheid still exist in South Africa.
4. Severe erosion: The soil is unstable and exposed to erosion due to overgrazing caused by overstocking.
5. Land shortage: Much land is occupied by mining, towns, and manufacturing industries. The western part is dry and unsuitable for rain-fed agriculture except under irrigation.
6. Unreliable rainfall: Rainfall is sometimes insufficient, leading to droughts.
7. Low capital availability: Among Africans, leading to poor investment in agriculture.

Problems Facing Cash Crop Production in East Africa

1. Diseases and pests attack crops both on farms and in storage. Diseases also affect farmers, reducing their ability to focus on agriculture.
2. Price fluctuations in the world market discourage farmers.
3. Poor transport and communication systems.
4. Poor climatic conditions such as unreliable rainfall, droughts, and frequent floods.
5. Decline in soil fertility due to over-cultivation and leaching (loss of nutrients from topsoil by washing).
6. Frequent fires devastating crops.
7. Conflicts between cultivators and pastoralists (e.g., Kilosa in 2000) and among farmers themselves (e.g., Mara in 2001).
8. Low technology levels, with reliance on simple tools.
9. Rapid population growth forcing focus on food crops rather than cash crops.

Causes of Land Conflicts in Africa

1. Population pressure causing land shortages due to rapid growth.
2. Poor agricultural policies lacking clear land ownership guidelines.
3. Lack of land tenure systems denying farmers ownership rights.
4. Poverty forcing dependence on land rather than other economic sectors.
5. Customs and traditions where farmers claim ancestral land ownership.
6. Some tribes asserting superiority over others.
7. Environmental problems like soil degradation and pasture scarcity causing clashes during migration.
8. Colonial legacy favoring foreigners over indigenous people, e.g., conflicts in Zimbabwe in 2000.
9. Historical factors.

Measures to Address Conflict in Africa

1. Create alternative activities to reduce land pressure.
2. Encourage population control among farmers.
3. Governments should formulate policies including land tenure to provide farmers with demarcated land ownership.
4. Provide capital to farmers for investment in improved agricultural methods to increase production on smaller land areas.
5. Encourage farmers to settle permanently to avoid conflicts caused by movement.

Commercial Mixed Farming

Commercial mixed farming is an intensive system where animals and crops are raised on the same farm. It is common in highly developed regions such as Northwestern Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Russia, and temperate zones of southern continents. Introduced in Africa by European settlers, it is found in Kenya highlands (especially central Rift Valley), South Africa, Tanzania highlands, and Zimbabwe.

Farmers use advanced technology to grow selected crops and keep animals for milk or beef. Farms are mechanized and located near transport lines or urban markets. Crops include maize, tobacco, wheat, and cotton. The proportion of animals depends on factors like farm location, soil fertility, land carrying capacity, market demand, prices, and government policies. Commercial mixed farming is capital intensive.

Advantages of Mixed Farming

1. Integration of crops and animals: crops provide fodder, and animal manure improves soil fertility, reducing the need for artificial fertilizers.
2. Diversified income sources from both crops and animals.
3. Assured balanced diet from crop and animal products.
4. Scientific methods improve product quality.
5. Animals provide labor for cultivation and transport.
6. Farmers settle in one place, saving time and effort.
7. Crop rotation maintains soil fertility.
8. Suitable for areas with high population density.

Disadvantages

1. Farmers may focus on one enterprise, often animals, neglecting crops.
2. Requires close attention to both crops and animals.
3. High capital requirements limit adoption by many farmers in developing countries.

Revision Questions

1. State the difference between subsistence small-scale agriculture and commercial large-scale agriculture.
2. Outline factors hindering the development of large-scale agriculture in Tanzania.
3. What problems are caused by large-scale farming in any country?
4. What are the advantages of plantation agriculture in Tanzania?
5. Show the disadvantages of plantation agriculture.
6. What are the major requirements for the development of plantations in any country?
7. List six main characteristics of plantation agriculture.

Case Studies

Agriculture in China

Historical Background

Agriculture in China is divided into two periods: before the revolution (1949) and after the revolution.

Before 1949

This period was characterized by unplanned agriculture. Cultivation was difficult without land modification because:

1. Much land was desert, mountainous, or swampy.
2. High population density meant three people shared one acre; only 11% of land was farmland, requiring intensive subsistence farming.
3. Farms were small and fragmented.

Despite this, peasants farmed due to natural advantages:

1. Fertile soil supporting plant growth.
2. Climatic variation allowing diverse crops from north to south.
3. Long growing seasons, especially in the Tsinling Shan.
4. Manual or oxen cultivation with low output per worker.

After 1949

Planned agriculture began, leading to substantial advancements.

Organization of Agriculture

Agriculture was organized into communes after overthrowing the feudal government. Land was communally owned, and cooperative production was encouraged. Communes covered economic, social, and administrative activities.

Communes were divided into brigades with committees making decisions. Brigades, responsible to the government, handled planning but delegated farming details to production teams. A brigade could have 3,000 people and cover about 200 ha. Contributions were recorded.

Brigades were subdivided into production teams of about 50 families (300 people) managing roughly 20 ha, responsible for finances, planting, weeding, manufacturing, and harvesting.

How the Communes Worked

1. Mobilized manpower for public works like dams, dykes, roads, and intensive cultivation.
2. Diversified rural economy into forestry, fisheries, and small industries.
3. Generated revenue for investment in commune industries.
4. Provided social services such as education, health centers, and recreation from commune savings.
5. Decentralized rural planning for mass participation and effective production.

Achievements of the Commune System

1. Diversified China’s economy, promising a bright future.
2. Fostered cooperation through cooperative projects.
3. Improved social services like education, health, electricity, and water supply.
4. Advanced technology by encouraging local ingenuity, stimulating industrial development.
5. Achieved food sufficiency despite high population.
6. Stimulated transport and communication development through cooperative infrastructure projects.
7. Promoted equality and social justice.

Launching of Comprehensive National Schemes for River Control

The government planned and launched schemes to control major rivers like Hwang Ho, Sin kiang, and Yangtze kiang. Goals included flood control via dams and dykes, water conservation for irrigation, hydroelectric power, land reclamation, and navigable waterways. These served as models for communes.

The schemes were incorporated into the First, Second, and Twelve Year Plans. The Twelve Year Plan (launched in 1996) aimed to increase agricultural output per hectare, zoning the country into three belts with production targets. It promoted the Green Revolution with slogans: Fertilization, Deep ploughing, Seed improvement, Close planting, Plant protection, Soil improvement, Tool production, and Irrigation.

Soil Improvement

New fertilizing methods emphasized compost manure using seaweed and pond mud.

Plant Protection

Use of pesticides and chemicals controlled fungal and bacterial diseases. Large chemical factories were established in Kirin, Canton, Nanking, and Dairen.

Close Planting

Encouraged to maximize land use and increase yields per hectare.

Seed Improvement

Agricultural colleges and research centers developed quick-maturing, high-yield seeds.

Tool Production and Improvement

Small machines were locally designed and manufactured. Tractors and large mechanization were limited. Farmers improved hoes, ploughs, drills, and water wheels using local ingenuity.

Irrigation and Water Conservation

Primarily government-led through river control schemes, with cooperatives and communes expanding irrigation in two stages:

1. Extending existing irrigation areas with storage ponds at village heads.
2. Building large earth dams, aqueducts, and channel networks using mobilized labor.

Role of River Control in Agricultural Development

1. Flood control reduced agricultural losses.
2. Water conservation enabled irrigation, especially in northern dry areas.
3. Expanded farmland under agriculture fivefold.
4. Stimulated hydroelectric power and navigable waterways, aiding industrial development.
5. Increased food production, achieving self-sufficiency despite high population.

Introduction of Family Responsibility System during the Reformation Period

Introduced in 1979, this system gave land to individual farmers who contracted with the government to produce fixed quotas. Farmers received tools and seeds and could keep profits after meeting quotas.

Family farms averaged less than one hectare, focusing on food grains. The system encouraged harder work, increasing yields, improving rural markets, and raising living standards near cities.

Agricultural Regions in China

About 75% of China’s population engages in agriculture, concentrated on plains and river valleys of humid China.

Southern Part to the Yangtze Basin

Rice dominates, occupying 99% of cultivated land. The extreme south with 2000mm rainfall has three rice cropping periods. The middle region (1000–2000mm rainfall) practices double cropping with sugar cane and tea on hills. The Yangtze valley has one summer rice crop and one winter wheat or vegetable crop. Irrigated areas grow maize, sweet potatoes, tea, sugarcane, cotton, jute, barley, and citrus fruits.

North of the Yangtze Basin

Summer and spring wheat dominate up to Manchuria. Rice is absent due to low rainfall (500–1000mm). Millet and sorghum are grown in summer. Cotton, maize, potatoes, sugar beet, soybeans, peanuts, flax, and tobacco are also cultivated. Garden vegetables are widespread.

North and Northwest Grasslands

Pastoral farming dominates with sheep, goats, cattle, horses, and camels. Rainfall is below 500mm, limiting arable farming. Pigs and poultry are principal animals in humid areas.

Western Part

Too dry for farming except around oases.

Map Diagram:

Factors Contributing to Agricultural Success in China

1. Adoption of the Green Revolution: Use of fertilizers, quick-maturing and high-yield seeds, and advanced technology.
2. Research: Improving seeds and agricultural methods.
3. Disease and pest control: Reducing crop losses.
4. Government involvement: Organizing communes, formulating policies, and launching schemes.
5. Fertile land: Naturally easy to cultivate.
6. Water availability: From major rivers supported by conservation systems.
7. Conducive climate: Varied rainfall and temperatures supporting diverse crops and multiple cropping.
8. Cooperation and hardworking attitude: Among farmers in communes.
9. High population: Providing labor and market.
10. Improved transport and communication: Especially after river control.
11. Low capital involvement: Labor and ingenuity compensated for low capital.
12. Social services: Medical treatment, education, etc.
13. Environmental conservation: River control schemes reduced floods and stimulated production.

Limitations of Agriculture in China

1. Floods: Still problematic, especially in the Hwang Ho valley.
2. Communal land ownership: Reduced efficiency.
3. Soil erosion: Due to population pressure and deforestation; addressed by afforestation programs.
4. Limited arable land: Concentrated in eastern river valleys.
5. Explosive population growth: Challenges feeding the population.
6. Low technology in rural areas: Leading to poor yields.
7. Low capital among poor farmers: Hindering advanced agriculture.
8. Unreliable rains: Especially in the north with little snow and frequent frost.

Rationale Behind Commune and Family Responsibility Systems

Communes (1958)

1. Small land plots after land confiscation were insufficient; communes allowed collective farming for better productivity and control.
2. Encouraged cooperation and mutual aid.
3. Decentralized planning for mass participation and faster development.
4. Organized agriculture efficiently by involving local people.
5. Reduced production costs by mobilizing local labor.
6. Encouraged technological advancement through local ingenuity.
7. Promoted equality and social justice.

Family Responsibility System (1979) gave land to individual farmers with government production contracts, encouraging responsibility and higher yields, improving living standards and rural markets.

Lessons Tanzania Has Learned from China

1. Government involvement: Essential for planning, policy formulation, pilot schemes, and financing.
2. Local participation: Involving local people ensures commitment and hard work, as seen in communes and Ujamaa villages.
3. Technology development: Gradual adoption from low-level local to advanced technology facilitates skill acquisition.
4. Environmental transformation: River control and irrigation can convert inhospitable areas into productive land.
5. Cooperation: Agricultural cooperation promotes development.
6. Land ownership: Giving farmers land encourages responsibility and productivity.
7. Population control: Necessary to reduce pressure and increase surplus production.

Agriculture in North America

Dominated by the United States and Canada, North American agriculture is diversified and highly advanced due to mechanization. Factors contributing to development include rich land, conducive climate, favorable relief, advanced technology, market availability, power supply, and capital investment.

Agricultural Regions in North America

In Canada, the prairies and Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands produce 90% of agricultural output. The prairies (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta) produce 95% of Canada’s wheat. Other regions include Maritime Provinces, Lakes peninsula, and parts of British Columbia. The Canadian Shield is generally unsuitable due to cold climate, poor soils, poor transport, and small markets, except for Cochrane Clay Belt and Saguenay Basin.

Average farms are about 200 hectares; ranches can exceed 4,000 hectares, mostly individually owned.

In the USA, many agricultural regions exist with average farms around 160 hectares, highly mechanized and electrified. Fertilizers are used, with intensive farming in the Northeast, Pacific Lowlands, and Western plateau. Most farms are individually run.

Important agricultural states include Florida, California, Oklahoma, North and South Carolina. California is the most prosperous, producing more barley, lettuce, peaches, and other fruits than any other state, with cotton yields three times the national average.

Agricultural Success in California

1. Good and variable Mediterranean climate with altitudinal diversity.
2. Fertile soils.
3. Large labor supply.
4. Efficient transport and communication networks.
5. Ready market and cooperative marketing tradition.

Importance of Agriculture in North America

1. Food supply for the population.
2. Foreign exchange from exports (e.g., 75% of Canadian wheat is exported).
3. Improved living standards.
4. Stimulated industrial and tourism development.
5. Urban growth (e.g., Chicago, St. Louis).
6. Development of transport and communication systems.
7. Model for developing countries on high technology use.
8. Employment creation.

Limitations of Agricultural Development in North America

1. Adverse climatic events: blizzards, snow, droughts, hail, short growing seasons, tornadoes.
2. Pests and diseases, e.g., boll weevils damaging cotton.
3. Severe soil erosion, especially in High Plains and Old South due to monoculture and insufficient conservation.
4. Competition from technologically advanced countries like China.
5. Limited farmland in areas like the Canadian Shield.
6. Rising operational costs, especially in the old cotton belt.

Soil conservation measures include crop rotation, tree planting, dams, fertilizers, dry farming, irrigation, terracing, and contour ploughing.

The Cotton Belt

Cotton is the most important cash crop in the Southern USA, grown in the Cotton Belt states: Mississippi, Alabama, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. The New Cotton Belt includes Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Cotton requires at least 200 frost-free days and 500mm annual rainfall. It grows best on heavy clay lime soils. Fertilizers are important due to nutrient depletion.

Florida and Tennessee have phosphate reserves; California supplies potash.

Cotton Uses

Fiber is used in textile manufacturing. Seeds are crushed for oil used in margarine, soap, candles, and lubricants. Hulls are used for animal feed and paper production. Short fibers (linters) are used in celluloid and photographic film. Stalks serve as animal feed, paper, or fertilizer. Roots have medicinal value.

Changes in the Old Cotton Belt

Westward shift of cotton growing has occurred. Mixed farming and afforestation have replaced monoculture. More efficient cotton growing methods have been introduced.

Reasons for Cotton Belt Shift

Problems in the Old Cotton Belt

• Severe soil erosion from monoculture.
• Wetter climate unsuitable for cotton.
• Boll weevil pest damage.
• High population pressure causing land degradation.
• High production costs due to poor mechanization.

Advantages of the New Cotton Belt

• Fertile, drier soils better suited for cotton.
• Flat land allowing mechanization.
• Absence of boll weevils due to dry conditions.
• Lower production costs from mechanization and natural fertility.
• Low population enabling large-scale mechanized cultivation.

Importance of Cotton to the Country

1. Employment creation.
2. Stimulated textile industry development.
3. Development of transport and communication.
4. International reputation.
5. Urban development in Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico.
6. Improved social services.
7. Effective land utilization.

Limitations of Cotton Production in the USA

1. Shift to intensive and diversified farming reducing cotton focus.
2. Emergence of other occupations like fishing and industry.
3. Soil fertility decline due to leaching and erosion.
4. Diseases and pests like boll weevils.
5. Competition from synthetic fibers.
6. Price fluctuations discouraging farmers.
7. Competition from other cotton producers.
8. Swampy conditions in the Old Cotton Belt.

The Maize Belt (The Corn Belt)

The Corn Belt includes Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, where maize dominates but mixed farming is practiced. Maize is used to fatten beef cattle raised in drier western USA. Adjacent states producing maize include South Dakota, Minnesota, and Missouri.

Boundaries are set by climate and competition from other land uses. The northern boundary is the 21°C summer isotherm; the southern boundary transitions to general farming due to unsuitable soils and competition from tobacco and winter wheat.

Reasons for Success in Maize Production

1. Good climate: temperatures between 19°C and 21°C, rainfall above 500mm, and 150 frost-free growing days.
2. Rich, moist, well-drained, deep soils.
3. Advanced mechanization.
4. Proper farming methods: crop rotation, deep ploughing, hybrid varieties since the 1930s.
5. Effective disease control using chemicals.

Farm Organization

Most farms are individually operated with hired labor. Average size is about 140 hectares. Farming is mechanized with crop rotation and use of manure and fertilizers. Crop rotation includes wheat, barley, oats, alfalfa, and clover. Planting occurs in late April or early May; some maize is harvested as fodder by August, with the rest harvested in autumn. Farms are mixed, keeping beef cattle and pigs. The Corn Belt leads in livestock in the USA.

Uses of Maize

About 70% of maize is used for animal fodder or silage. Over 15% is for human food or processed into alcohol, starch, glucose, and cooking fat. Stalks are used for papermaking. Less than 1% is exported.

Limitations of Maize Production

1. Leaching causing fertility decline.
2. Competition from Europe, Asia, and Africa.
3. Diseases and pests.
4. Winter frost affecting southern winter wheat.

Importance of Maize Production

1. Stimulated industries using maize and animal products, e.g., meat packing centers in Chicago, Kansas City, and St. Louis.
2. Promoted livestock farming.
3. Contributed to government revenue and individual income.
4. Created employment through hired labor.
5. Stimulated growth of towns like Illinois, Chicago, St. Louis, and Kansas City.
6. Provided a strong foundation for national food supply and exports.

Map Diagram

Wheat Production in North America

Wheat is grown extensively. Winter wheat is planted in autumn and harvested in summer in southern areas like Texas, yielding more per hectare than spring wheat. Spring wheat, grown in northern areas like Canadian prairies, matures within 90 days.

Varieties of Wheat

Soft varieties, grown in wetter areas, are used for biscuits. Hard varieties, grown in drier western areas with chernozem soils, are used for bread.

Wheat Production in the Canadian Prairies

Canada produces about 20 million tonnes of wheat from 10 million hectares. The Prairie Provinces (Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba) produce 95% of Canadian wheat, with Saskatchewan accounting for two-thirds. The region is known as one of the world’s granaries.

Factors Contributing to Canadian Prairie Wheat Production

1. Extensive land area with sparse population enabling large-scale mechanized farming.
2. Elaborate transport network including railways and waterways facilitating export and labor movement.
3. Fertile soils rich in humus, phosphorus, and potassium.
4. Flat or undulating topography allowing good drainage and mechanization.
5. Conducive temperate climate with summer temperatures around 15°C and 450mm annual precipitation.
6. Reliable markets domestically and internationally (China, Japan, Western Europe).
7. Government support through policies encouraging mechanized large-scale farming.

Limitations of Wheat Production in the Canadian Prairies

1. Price fluctuations in the world market.
2. Severe cold winters causing seasonal production constraints and crop damage from frost, blizzards, hail, droughts, and tornadoes.
3. Soil erosion after grass removal caused by wind and rainstorms.
4. Difficulty ploughing wet soil, requiring dry conditions in April and May.

The short growing season necessitates timely ploughing and sowing.

Map Diagram

Main Tree Crops in Africa and Other Countries

Main tree crops include tea in Kenya, Malawi, and India; oil palm in Nigeria; cocoa in Ghana; rubber in Liberia and Malaysia; and coconuts in Tanzania.

Tea in Kenya

Kenya is the largest tea producer in Africa, ranking among the top six globally. Tea production may surpass coffee with government expansion through Nyayo Tea Zones.

Production areas are divided into highlands east and west of the Rift Valley.

Western highlands include Kericho (largest estates), Nandi, Kakamega, and Cherangani hills.

Eastern highlands include Nyambene Hills, Nyeri, Muranga, and Kiambu districts.

Organization

Tea is grown on plantations and increasingly by smallholders supported by the Kenya Tea Development Authority (KTDA), which promotes small-scale tea farming.

Reasons for Success in Tea Production in Kenya

1. Favorable climate: warm, high rainfall, hilly relief, and good soils.
2. Labor availability from high population.
3. Government support through KTDA, policies, and financial assistance.
4. Efficient marketing system providing good bargaining power.
5. High-quality products attracting local and international markets.
6. Capital availability invested in tea production.

Contributions of Tea to Kenya’s Development

1. Stimulated industrial development, especially processing industries in tea-growing districts.
2. Created employment opportunities.
3. Generated government revenue.
4. Boosted external trade; Kenya accounts for nearly 50% of Africa’s tea exports.
5. Enhanced Kenya’s international reputation.
6. Provided year-round income due to continuous tea picking.

Problems Facing Tea Farmers in Kenya

1. Diseases and pests such as black tea thrip, red spider mites, weevils, beetles, and fungal diseases increase production costs.
2. Hailstones cause physical damage.
3. Price fluctuations in the world market discourage production.
4. Population pressure limits mechanization due to land scarcity.
5. Soil erosion on hilly farms.
6. Labor shortages due to alternative employment in industries and trade.
7. Droughts limit production.

Tea in Malawi

Malawi began tea cultivation in 1878 in Blantyre, with farms in Mlanje, Chalo, Zomba Mountain slopes, and Nkata Bay. The tea type is Assam from Assam, Burma, and Indo-China.

Factors Favoring Tea Production in Malawi

1. Highlands providing good relief and drainage.
2. Well-drained, slightly acidic soils.
3. Sufficient rainfall, mostly orographic.
4. Proximity to export routes along coastal strips.
5. Government encouragement due to agriculture’s economic importance.
6. Labor availability.

Advantages of Tea Production in Malawi

1. Employment creation.
2. Stimulated town development.
3. Increased individual incomes and living standards.
4. Industrial development through capital generation.
5. Foreign currency earnings.
6. Improved transport, communication, and energy supply.

Limitations of Tea Production in Malawi

1. Labor shortages due to migration to South African mines.
2. Competition from Kenya, China, and others.
3. Unreliable rainfall causing droughts and floods.
4. Snow and frost damage in highlands.
5. Soil erosion on slopes, mitigated by contour farming and vegetation planting.
6. Diseases and pests reducing production.
7. Price fluctuations in world markets.
8. Small country size limiting production scale.
9. Poor transport and communication.
10. Diversification into other crops and fishing reducing tea focus.

Tea in India

India remains the world’s leading tea producer, followed by Sri Lanka and China. Despite African countries’ growth, Asia dominates tea production.

Conditions Favoring Tea Production in India

1. Humid, warm monsoon climate with oceanic influence and orographic rainfall of 1500–2500mm, promoting fast growth and frequent picking.
2. Suitable topography with hills and highlands offering well-drained soils, e.g., Himalayan foothills, Assam hills, Nilgiris hills (over 1200m elevation).
3. Fertile, deep, well-drained, slightly acidic soils.
4. Labor availability due to high population (second largest globally).
5. Large domestic and international markets, including the UK, Australia, and Western Europe.
6. Technological advances from the 1970s Green Revolution, with scientific cultivation and processing methods.
7. Combination of small holdings and estates encouraged by the government.

Organization

Tea is grown on large estates and small holdings, with many processing factories serving both. Cooperative factories promote efficiency among smallholders.