Agriculture Form 3 – Livestock Production IV(Livestock Rearing Practice)

Introduction

• In the management of livestock, many activities are carried out on animals to enhance production.
• They require proper care in feeding, health, and breeding.
• Specific management practices are also important in bee and fish farming.

Routine Livestock Rearing Practices

A routine is a fixed or regular way of doing something. It is performed repeatedly after a certain period of time to ensure the well-being and productivity of the animals.

Feeding Practice

• Animals are fed to meet both maintenance and production requirements.
• Special feeding practices are carried out on certain animals to cater for specific needs.

These include:

Flushing

• The practice of giving extra quality feed to an animal around service time.
• In sheep, it is done 2-3 weeks before tupping and 3 weeks after tupping.
• In pigs, it is done 3-4 weeks before service.

Importance of Flushing

• It increases conception rates.
• It enhances implantation of the zygote.
• In sheep, it increases twinning percentage by 15-20%.

Steaming Up

• Giving extra quality feed to an animal during the last weeks of gestation.
• In cattle, it is done 6-8 weeks before calving.

Importance of Steaming Up

• It provides nutrients for maximum foetal growth.
• It helps in the build-up of energy for parturition.
• It ensures the birth of a healthy animal.
• It promotes good health of the mother.
• It increases and maintains high milk yield after birth.

Creep Feeding

• Feeding of young animals from birth to weaning to supplement natural feeding.

Piglets

• At 10 days old – introduced to creep pellets.
• At 5 weeks old – creep pellets mixed with sow and weaner meals.
• At 8 weeks old – weaning occurs.

Lambs

• Run with their mothers for natural suckling.
• Bucks are introduced to succulent feeds and concentrates.

Kids

• Meat goat kids suckle naturally.
• Dairy goats are fed milk artificially.
• Given 0.5-1.25 litres of milk up to the third week.
• Introduced to concentrates at 3-4 months.
• Weaned at 6-8 weeks of age.

Parasite and Disease Control Practices

Vaccination

Introducing active disease organisms, which are reduced in strength or virulence, into the animal’s body to induce immunity.

Administration of Vaccination is done through:

• Injection.
• Orally through the mouth.
• By inhalation through the nose.
• Eye drops.

Deworming

The practice of killing or removing internal parasites by administering drugs known as dewormers or antihelminthics.

Hoof Trimming

Cutting back overgrown hooves with the help of a hoof trimming knife, hoof cutter, or hoof rasp.

Importance

• Facilitates easy movement.
• Controls foot rot disease.
• Facilitates mating by preventing the ram from injuring the ewe during tupping.

Docking / Tailing

Removal (cutting off) of tails in sheep during the first week after birth.

Importance

• Ensures even distribution of body fat.
• Facilitates easy mating in adult life.
• Minimizes fouling of the wool with faeces.
• Reduces incidences of blowfly infestation.

Methods of Docking / Tailing

• Cutting with a sharp knife or scalpel.
• Use of elastrator and rubber ring.

Dipping and Spraying

Methods of applying acaricides on animals to control external parasites.

Dusting

• Application of chemical powders on the animal body or on the walls of the animal house to control external parasites.
• Used to control stick-fast parasites and fleas in poultry.

Breeding Practices

These are practices carried out to enhance successful breeding.

Crutching and Ringing

• Crutching – cutting wool around the external reproductive organs of female sheep.
• Ringing – trimming wool around the sheath of the penis of rams to facilitate mating.

Tupping and Serving

• Tupping refers to mating in sheep and goats.
• Serving refers to mating in cattle and pigs.

Raddling

The practice of fitting rams with breeding chutes painted in different colours during mating to identify mated ewes and indicate active rams, helping in culling weak rams.

Identification

The practice of putting identification marks on animals.

• Branding – burning marks on the animal’s skin.
• Ear tagging – placing marked plastic or metallic tags on the animal’s ears.
• Ear notching – cutting different shapes bearing different values on the ear lobes.
• Tattooing – use of permanent ink or dye to mark animals with light skin.
• Neck strap or chain – fixing tags around the animal’s neck with a chain or strap.

Importance / Purpose of Identification

• Record keeping.
• Settling disputes in case animals get mixed up in the pasture.

Debeaking

• Cutting about one-third of the upper beak with a knife, scissors, or hot iron.
• Importance:
• Controls egg eating.
• Controls cannibalism.

Tooth Clipping

Removal (clipping) of the needle (canine) teeth in piglets 24 hours after birth.

Culling

Removal of undesirable animals from a herd to improve overall herd quality.

Dehorning

Removal of horns or horn buds from an animal.

Importance

• Prevents animals from injuring each other.
• Makes the animal docile and easier to handle.
• Facilitates easy transportation and feeding.
• Prevents destruction of farm structures.

Shearing

• The practice of cutting wool from all over the body of a sheep.
• It starts at the age of 8 months and is done once a year.
• Should be done during the dry season.
• Tools used: wool shears.
• Care must be taken not to cut the skin, testicles, udder, vulva, or penis.

Castration

Rendering the testicles of a male animal unserviceable.

Importance

• To control breeding diseases.
• To control breeding.
• For faster growth rates.
• Increases quality of meat by removing unpleasant smell, especially in goats.

Methods Used:

• Closed / bloodless method: Involves use of burdizzo or rubber ring and elastrator. Animals do not bleed but may not be 100% effective.
• Open method: A surgical method used for castrating cocks, piglets, and rabbits whose testes are internal. Also used for lambs, kids, and calves. Animals bleed a lot but it is 100% effective. Not recommended for mature adults.
• Caponisation: Practice of making male birds lose their male characteristics by use of hormones. Hormones used include stilboestrol injected when birds are one day old and female hormones implanted beneath the skin at the neck. Birds altered this way are called capons.

Management During Parturition

Parturition is the act of giving birth to a fully grown foetus.

Parturition in Cattle

• Referred to as calving.
• Gestation period lasts 270-285 days after conception.
• When signs of parturition are observed, the cow should be separated from the rest of the herd.
• Normal calving should take about 2 hours; the normal presentation is the muzzle, face, or forehead on top of the forelegs first.
• If other presentations occur, the mother should be assisted.
• Provide the mother with plenty of water and feed after parturition.
• If the afterbirth does not come out within 48 hours, a veterinarian should be called to remove it.

Parturition in Sheep

• Referred to as lambing.
• Gestation lasts 21 weeks (150 days) after conception.
• The ewe lambs naturally without problems.
• If complications arise, the ewes should be assisted.

Signs of Parturition in Sheep

• Udder becomes full.
• Teats become bright red in colour.
• Restlessness and bleating.
• Slackening of the hip muscles.

After these signs are seen, the ewes should be separated from the others.

• The normal presentation is forelegs and head first.
• After birth, the mother should be allowed to lick the lamb to ensure the coat is dry.

Parturition in Goats

• Referred to as kidding.
• Occurs about 150 days after conception.
• Nannies carrying twins kid a few days earlier.
• Kidding nannies should be kept in a clean, dry, and well-sheltered place.
• Signs of parturition are similar to those of ewes.
• Kidding nannies should be kept with another female for company.

Parturition in Pigs

• Referred to as farrowing.
• Gestation period is 113-117 days (about 4 months).

Signs of Farrowing

• The sow becomes restless.
• There is enlargement of the vulva.
• Muscles on each side of the tail slacken.
• Loss of appetite.
• The udder and teats become enlarged.
• The sow collects bedding material in one corner to build a nest.
• Milk is present in the teats 24 hours before farrowing.

After the signs are seen:

• Farrowing takes about 2-6 hours under normal conditions.
• An attendant should be present to assist the mother and piglets.
• Ensure removal of the afterbirth to prevent the sow from eating it.
• The sow should be fed well and given plenty of clean water.

Parturition in Rabbits

• Referred to as kindling.
• Occurs 28-32 days after conception.
• Provide a nesting box and plenty of dry, soft bedding in the hutch towards the fourth week of gestation.

Signs of Parturition

• The doe plucks fur from her body.
• Uses the fur to build a nest about 3-10 days before kindling.

Bee Keeping (Apiculture)

Bees are insects that live in very well-organised colonies.

Each colony consists of:

• Queens – fertile females that breed to ensure the continuity of the species.
• Drones – fertile males that mate with the queen for reproduction.
• Workers – non-fertile or sterile females that maintain the colony.

Duties of Workers

• They rear and nurse the brood (eggs, larvae, and pupae), queen, and drones.
• They collect nectar and make honey.
• They build the honeycombs.
• They protect the hives.
• They clean the hive.

Importance of Bees

• Collect nectar from flowers.
• Make honey – a nutritious product used by humans as food.
• Help in crop pollination of plants.
• Produce wax used to make candles.
• Make propolis – a bee product with medicinal properties.

Routine Management

Siting/Locating of an Apiary

Factors to consider:

• Nearness or accessibility to nectar or flower-producing vegetation.
• Areas with shade, as bees are sensitive to the sun’s heat and require some shade for protection.
• Safe distance from human residences and other livestock, since bees are stinging insects and can pose hazards.
• Nearness to a source of water for their nutrition.
• A good distance from sources of noise and other disturbances.
• Safety from predators such as honey badgers, ants (safari ants), birds, and parasites like wax moths.

Feeding

• Normally, bees are self-sufficient, providing their food from the honey they make.
• However, during the dry season, their feeding should be supplemented by providing a sugar water syrup or molasses.
• This should be placed strategically for easy access by the bees.

Parasites

• Ants
• Wax moths
• Bee louse
• Honey badger

Control of Parasites

• Use physical barriers such as Vaseline or grease to control ants.
• Smoke the hive to control bee louse.
• Suspend the hive to control honey badgers.
• Burn infected combs to control wax moths.

Diseases and Control

African bees are seldom attacked by diseases.

Harvesting Honey

Factors to consider:

• Stage of ripening: Honey must be harvested when fully mature.
• Season of the year: Harvest at the end of the rainy season.

Procedure

• Blow light smoke through the hive entrance.
• This makes bees suck honey, become engorged, and docile.
• Lower the hive to the ground.
• Open the hive to expose honeycombs.
• Brush the bees off the honeycombs.
• Cut the honeycombs, leaving a small margin on the bars, and keep them in a closed container.

Honey Processing

• Using heat in a water bath to melt the honey.
• Crushing and straining.
• Using a centrifugal extractor.

Precautions When Handling Bees

• Avoid excessive smoking as it kills the brood and lowers honey quality.
• Use protective clothing to avoid stings.
• Protect the hive from rainwater.
• Use clean equipment and containers to avoid honey contamination.
• Use recommended methods of extracting honey.
• Use recommended types of hives such as the Kenya top bar hive.

Fish Keeping (Aquaculture)

Introduction

The rearing or keeping of fish is called fish farming and is normally carried out in specially prepared ponds.

A good fish pond should have the following features:

• Site should be on fairly level ground with a permanent supply or source of water.
• The area should have clayey soil to avoid loss of water through seepage.
• Water must be free from pollutants such as chemicals and other wastes.

Construction should provide for:

• An inlet for fresh water supply.
• A spillway channel to take off overflow or excess water.
• An outlet to drain water when necessary to replace pond water.
• A fence to keep off predators and other intruders.

Feeding Fish

• Fish naturally feed on worms, insects, and algae in the ponds.
• These food sources must be supplemented by adding:
• Kitchen wastes.
• Chopped vegetable materials such as cabbage leaves.
• Cereal brans.
• Brewers’ grain.

Management Practices to Ensure Maximum Harvest of Fish

• Control stocking rate to maintain the recommended fish population in a pond at any one time.
• Harvest at the correct maturity stage.
• Use fishing nets with correct mesh sizes to avoid catching fingerlings.
• Avoid water pollution which may poison fish.
• Ensure adequate food supply in the pond.
• Keep water in motion to facilitate aeration.
• Maintain appropriate water depth.
• Control predators and thieves.
• Drain and refill ponds with fresh water as necessary.

Harvesting Fish

Harvesting involves extracting fish from the ponds for consumption.

Two main methods:

• Hook-and-line method: Slow, injures small fish, inefficient; suitable only for small-scale fishing.
• Use of fishing nets: Most efficient method when using nets with correct mesh size.
• Harvesting may be done 6-8 months after introducing fingerlings into the pond.

Maintenance of the Fish Pond

• Repairing the dyke or any structures on it.
• Cleaning the pond and removing foreign materials.
• Planting grass where necessary.
• Removing undesirable vegetation.
• Removing silt.

Fish Preservation

Practices before preservation:

• Clean fish to remove mud and worms.
• Remove scales and slime.
• Open fish on the side to remove gut and intestines (gutting).
• Clean the abdominal cavity thoroughly.
• Keep fish in open containers.

Methods of Preservation

• Freezing
• Salting
• Sun drying
• Smoking

Appropriate Handling of Livestock During Management

• Avoid physical beating of animals.
• Use structures that help restrain animals whenever applicable.
• Use correct methods of securing and casting animals.
• Apply as little force as possible.
• Use equipment such as ropes, halters, lead sticks, and bull rings to handle animals appropriately.