History and Government Form 3 Notes : EUROPEAN INVASION AND THE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION OF AFRICA

1. EUROPEAN INVASION AND THE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION OF AFRICA

Introduction

In the last quarter of the 19^th century, Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal were in Africa, competing for colonies to boost their social, economic, and political standing. They convened the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 (convened by Otto Von Bismarck, the German Chancellor) where they shared Africa in Europe without regard to the inhabitants.

This is what is termed the invasion of Africa.

By 1914, apart from Liberia and Ethiopia, the rest of Africa had been colonized.

The scramble and partition of Africa

Scramble

It refers to the rushing for something.

In the African situation, it meant the rush for and struggle by European powers to acquire various parts of Africa during the 19th century.

Partition

It refers to the sharing of something.

In the African situation, it referred to the actual division of Africa by European powers during the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885.

Methods used by Europeans to acquire colonies in Africa

1. Signing of treaties;
   1. Treaty signing with African leaders.

   ~ The British signed the Maasai Agreements (1904 and 1911), Buganda Agreement of 1900, and the Lewanika-Lochner treaty with Lozi. The Royal Niger Company had by 1884 signed 37 treaties through George Goldie with African leaders in Niger Delta, Yorubaland, and Gambia.

   ~ Carl Peters signed treaties on behalf of Germany with the chiefs of Uzigua, Ukami, Usagara, and Ungulu.

   These treaties facilitated the acquisition of those areas for colonization.

   2. Treaties signed amongst European powers. These were known as Partition Agreements. For example;

   ~ The Anglo-Germany Agreements of 1886 and 1890 and Heligoland between the British and the Germans over the sharing of East Africa.

   ~ The Anglo-Italian treaty signed in 1891 between the Italians and the British over possession of Eritrea and the Somali coast.

   ~ The treaty between the British and Portugal and France in 1890 on the sharing of Madagascar (France), Mozambique, and Angola (Portugal).

2. Military conquest/Use of force. Europeans employed outright war against those societies that resisted their invasion. For example:

• The French war against the Mandinka of Samori Toure (1870-1899) and their conquest of western Sudan from Senegal to Chad, specifically in the Tukolor Empire, Segu, and Masina by 1898. Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria were acquired forcefully.
• The British used military force in the Nandi resistance from 1895-1905, the Chimurenga wars involving the Shona/Ndebele against the British, and forced acquisition of Egypt and Sudan.
• The Germans fought the Maji Maji wars from 1905-1907.
• The Italians were defeated during their Ethiopian campaign by Menelik II in the Battle of Adowa in 1896.
• The Portuguese forcefully established their rule over Angola, Guinea Bissau, and Mozambique.

~ Missionaries manipulated local quarrels and took sides to promote European occupation. For example, in Buganda, where there were religious conflicts between Protestants, Muslims, Catholics, and Traditionalists.

~ Sometimes the missionaries went to war against each other and against Africans. For example, the Franza-Ingeleza war of 1892 that pitted the Protestants (British) against the Catholics (French). Frederick Lugard’s intervention on the side of Protestants set the stage for the acquisition of Uganda by the British.

~ In Bulozi, Father François Coillard convinced Lewanika of the benefits of British protection.

~ In Nyasaland (Malawi), depicted as Livingstone’s country, missionaries (notably Scottish missionaries) shaped public opinion in favour of imperial control.

~ The Europeans instigated inter-tribal wars causing some Africans to support them against warring communities. For example, the use of the Wanga against the Luo and the Luhya in Kenya, and the Ndebele/Shona against the Lozi in Rhodesia.

~ The Italians lied to Menelik II by signing a treaty of friendship which, in the Italian version, indicated that Ethiopia had agreed to become an Italian protectorate.

~ The Maasai agreement was written in a language that Lenana never understood.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE SCRAMBLE FOR COLONIES IN AFRICA

Economic factors

1. The Industrial Revolution in Europe.

The revolution led to the search for markets for European manufactured goods in Africa, resulting in scramble for and partition.

• The need for raw materials. The machines invented processed goods faster than by hand. The Europeans came to Africa in search of raw materials like cotton, palm oil, copper, and iron ore.
• Cheap labour was also readily available in Africa after the abolition of the slave trade.
• There was desire by entrepreneurs to invest excess capital gained from profits from industrial investment. Africa provided an avenue for investment.
• Industrial revolution led to improved transport systems, necessary for effective colonization.
• The military hardware manufactured during the revolution enabled Europeans to conquer African territories.
• The discovery of medicine enabled Europeans to survive African conditions and protect themselves from diseases such as malaria and yellow fever.
• Those rendered unemployed in Europe due to invention of machines moved to Africa to assist in harnessing raw materials.
• Industrial revolution led to intense rivalry in trade, which was projected into Africa.

2. Speculation about the availability of deep pockets of minerals in Africa. Gold and bronze had been items of trade in Africa for centuries. The discovery of diamond at Kimberly in the 1860s and gold in the 1870s precipitated their appetite for Africa more.

Political reasons

1. Unification of Germany under Otto Von Bismarck after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71. The rise of Germany upset the balance of power in Europe, and there was need to rebalance through acquisition of colonies in Africa. France, for example, had to redeem her lost glory (especially after the loss of mineral-rich Alsace and Lorraine provinces) by acquiring eight colonies in Africa.
2. The rise of public opinion in Europe. There was growth of public support towards the acquisition of colonies. With the rise of democracy in European states in the 19^th century, it was fatal for any government to ignore public opinion.
   1. For example, in 1882, due to public demand, the French assembly was compelled to ratify De Brazza’s treaty with Chief Makoko, thus creating a French colony in Congo.
   2. Germany took over South-West Africa (Namibia), Togo, and Cameroon due to what Bismarck termed as public demand.
   3. In Britain, the public demanded that Britain must maintain her position as the leading colonizing power by taking her share in Africa.
3. Militarism. Army officers in Europe favoured colonial expansionist wars to gain glory or promotion.
   1. For example, in Sudan, it was the military officers, in search of glory, and not the French government who directed the extent of French colonization.
   2. British soldiers like Wolseley and Kitchener supported the expansion of the British Empire in Africa.
4. The rise of nationalism. In Europe, there was a general feeling that nations should acquire overseas colonies for national prestige. The Germans began feeling they belonged to a superior race that must be shown by acquiring colonies in Africa.

Strategic reasons

1. Construction of the Suez Canal (The Egyptian question).

~ The construction of the Suez Canal, opened in 1869, promoted a link between Europe and Asia, shortening the routes to the Far East. It also promoted international trade and made Egypt strategically important to Europeans.

~ The inability of Khedive Ishmael (1863-1879) to pay for the cost of the canal’s construction (due to extravagance) led to British full occupation of Egypt in 1882, being a major shareholder in the Anglo-Suez Company that owned the canal.

~ The dismayed French planned diversions of the Nile waters to make Egypt a desert after occupying territories south of Egypt.

~ Against this backdrop, Britain claimed Uganda (source of the Nile) in 1894, Kenya (gateway to Uganda) in 1895, and Sudan (where the Nile passes) in 1898.

2. French activities in West Africa and the Congo.

The activities of France in Congo and West Africa, after loss of Egypt, through their Italian agent Savorgnan de Brazza in connection to acquisition of colonies alarmed other powers. This encouraged powers like Germany to join in the scramble and acquire Togo, Cameroon, Namibia, and Tanganyika.

3. The personal activities of King Leopold II of Belgium.

~	He endeavored to create a personal empire. In 1876, Leopold convened the Brussels Geographical Conference where he formed a business company, the International African Association, comprising explorers and traders with a mission to civilize Africa, abolish slave trade, and establish free trade.
~	As a result of the activities of his agent, Henry Morton Stanley, who created the Congo Free State, Leopold had established a personal empire in 1884.
~	It was the activities of King Leopold leading to intense rivalry amongst European nations

over Congo that led to the convening of the Berlin Conference in 1884.

Social reasons

1. The work of Christian missionaries.

~ They created an atmosphere of friendship with Africans by giving gifts like cloth and beer, introducing economic activities like farming, carpentry, and clerical work among Africans, which were important virtues in the process of colonization.

~ Where they were in danger, they pressured their home governments to protect them.

~ The missionaries had direct contact with the people of the interior of Africa and were front-runners who paved the way for the colonialists through their work.

~ They preached peace, love, and hard work, calming down the emotions of Africans towards Europeans.

~ Some wrote exaggerated reports about Africa to convince Europeans to take interest in Africa.

2. The growth of European population. The growth of European population—steadily to about 420 million in the 19th century—led to the quest for new outlets to resettle the population. For example, Britain settled some of her people in Australia, New Zealand, USA, Canada, and South Africa. Germany, Portugal, and the Dutch also had to find places in Africa to settle some of their people.
3. Anti-slave trade campaigns – Humanitarian factor.

The humanitarians in Europe like William Wilberforce and Granville Sharp, and the missionaries who led the crusade against slave trade, advocated for colonization of Africa in order to stop it and introduce legitimate trade.

When slave trade was abolished, many European nations used it as an excuse to remain in some parts of Africa, control the region, enforce the anti-slavery treaties, and promote legitimate trade.

The pull factors

1. Existence of vast natural resources in Africa. There were pockets of minerals in various parts of Africa and ivory awaiting exploitation. This attracted the Europeans.
2. Well-developed trade/trade routes in the interior. Imperialists used these routes as transport routes to penetrate the interior.
3. Existence of navigable rivers. For example, rivers like Congo and Niger made transportation easy.
4. Existence of weak decentralized local communities. Most African communities were decentralized with no military structures, therefore offering little resistance to European invasion.
5. Frequent wars/inter-community wars. These wars weakened African communities and left them ill-prepared for any resistance. Some readily collaborated with the Europeans.

THE PROCESS OF PARTITION

The forerunners to the process of partitioning Africa were the early explorers, missionaries, and traders. Their activities were succeeded by the making of treaties and agreements in various parts of Africa between trading companies and the locals. For example, the Buganda Agreement, the Heligoland Treaty, and the Berlin Act of 1884-1885.

In places where the Europeans employed diplomacy, they won the support of many Africans who collaborated with the intruders. The Europeans sometimes blended diplomacy with wars of conquest or use of force, especially against resisting communities.

The partitioning boundaries were drawn along physical features like rivers and mountains.

The Berlin Conference

On 15^th November 1884, Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, the USA, Portugal, and Italy convened in Berlin to lay down the rules for the partition and eliminate conflicts amongst European nations. Africans, whose continent was being shared, were not represented in the conference.

The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 partitioned Africa into different spheres of influence without recourse to war.

Terms of the Berlin Act of 1884-1885

1. All signatories must declare their sphere of influence, an area under each nation’s occupation.
2. Once an area is declared a sphere of influence, effective occupation must be established through firm colonial infrastructures followed by colonial administration.
3. Any state laying claim to any part of Africa must inform other interested parties to avoid future rivalry.
4. Any power acquiring territory in Africa must undertake to stamp out slave trade in favour of legitimate trade and safeguard African interests.
5. If a European power claims a certain part of the African coast, the land in the interior next to the coast becomes theirs.
6. The Congo River and the Niger River basins were to be left free for any interested power to navigate.
7. The European powers vowed to protect and safeguard European interests in Africa irrespective of their nationality.

Impacts of the Partition

Political effects

1. Introduction of European administration minimized intertribal wars and civil strife.
2. It led to development of strong African leadership and beginning of state formation.
3. Colonial government structures inherited by most independent African states have continued to be models of governments in African countries.
4. Rise of African nationalism to fight colonialism led to the development of African political awareness.
5. The Europeans gained fame, prestige, and national glory by having colonial possessions.
6. Negatively, it led to collapse of African traditional political systems and leadership.
7. Use of divide and rule promoted ethnic disunity that continues to trouble Africa many years after independence.
8. Boundary creation split apart many African communities. For example, the Somali are found both in Kenya and Somalia, the Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania, and the Ewe in Ghana and Togo.
9. In some cases, communities whose cultures were incompatible found themselves bunched together.

Social impacts

1. Through the protection offered to missionaries, it stimulated the spread of Christianity to various parts of Africa.
2. It led to development of urban centres. Some towns grew as centres of administration, e.g., Nairobi and Machakos. Others grew as railway termini, e.g., Kisumu.
3. African welfare was boosted. Some Africans benefited from western education and health facilities introduced by the Europeans.
4. European languages were introduced in Africa.
5. Negatively, it created landlessness as European settlers appropriated African land.
6. The Africans adopted some negative aspects of western culture.
7. Many Africans lost their lives through resistance.

Economic effects

1. There was construction of roads, railways, and other infrastructure, which helped to open up the interior.
2. Imperialization helped to widen markets for African produce, especially with the establishment of local industries.
3. Africans were exposed to European manufactured goods and an increase in essential commodities.
4. Partition speeded up the economic growth of European nations.
5. Negatively, forced labour and exploitation of African resources left many parts of Africa impoverished and underdeveloped.
6. Africans were exposed to heavy taxation and denied participation in economic activities like farming and trade.

AFRICAN REACTION TO EUROPEAN COLONIZATION

RESISTANCE

Some communities were keen on defending their age-old political, social, and economic institutions and viewed the arrival of the Whiteman with suspicion. Their leaders did not want to lose their power, wealth, and sources of prestige. Others were militarily prepared for the Europeans, e.g., the Mandinka, Nandi, Ndebele, and Ethiopia.

Some resisters were centralized states enjoying immense unity, making it easy to mobilize people for war.

The Maji Maji Rebellion (1905-1907)

The Maji Maji Uprising in Tanganyika was the most significant African challenge to German colonial rule in its African colonies. The uprising lasted two years over 10,000 square miles. Tanzania had been acquired largely by Dr. Karl Peters, who signed treaties with the Chiefs of Usagara, Ungulu, Uzigua, and Ukami in 1885. The rebellion involved the Zaramo, Matumbi, Bena, Ngindo, Pogoro, Bunga, Ngoni, Luguru, Wamwera, and Ndendeule.

Causes of the Maji Maji Rebellion

1. When Germany established its control over Tanganyika by 1898, it imposed a violent regime to control the population. Kings who resisted German occupation were killed. Africans resented the cruel, brutal, harsh, and ruthless rule of the Germans.
2. Africans resented the creation of a new system of administration using Akidas and Jumbes who terrorized the people and misused their positions.
3. The African population was subjected to high taxation by the German East Africa Company to raise revenue for administration. The Matumbi felt the Germans should have paid Africans for using their land.
4. Africans resented a system of forced labour, whereby they were required to grow cotton and build roads for their European occupiers. They were treated inhumanely by the Akidas.
5. The Germans had no respect for African culture, misbehaving with Ngindo women. Crimes like rape, fornication, and adultery committed by Germans were punishable by death among the Ngindo.
6. Christian missionaries discredited traditional beliefs and practices, e.g., condemning sacred places as places of witchcraft, which greatly offended Africans.
7. Germans alienated land from Africans to make the railway pay for its construction. Arrival of German settlers in Usambara (1898), Meru (1905), and Kilimanjaro (1907) led to massive loss of African land.
8. Africans were forced to grow cotton in communal cotton growing schemes where they received very little payment. In 1902, Peters ordered villages to grow cotton as a cash crop with quotas, annoying Africans who could no longer effectively farm food.
9. The Ngoni sought revenge for the Boma Massacre of 1897 during which many soldiers were killed.
10. The role of Kinjeketile Ngwale in instilling confidence in Africans to unite and rise against the Germans.
11. In 1905, a drought threatened the region, causing heavy losses on a crop that was not edible, combined with opposition to government agricultural and labor policies, becoming the immediate cause of the rebellion in July 1905.

Course of the Maji Maji War

The oppressive regime bred discontent, and resentment peaked in 1905 when drought hit the region. A Ngarambe prophet, Kinjekitile Ngwale, emerged, claiming to know the secret to a sacred liquid called “Maji Maji” (“sacred water”) that could repel German bullets. Ngwale claimed to be possessed by a snake spirit called Hongo.

Armed with arrows, spears, and doused with Maji Maji water, the first warriors began the rebellion, led by Kinjeketile Ngwale, Abdalla Mpanda, and Ngamea.

On July 31, 1905, Matumbi tribesmen marched to Samanga, destroying cotton crops and a trading post. Kinjekitile was arrested and hanged for treason. However, his ideas spread widely through a whispering campaign called Njwiywia or Jujila by the Matumbi. Matumbi warriors uprooted cotton from an Akida’s farm at Nandete to provoke chiefs to fight.

On August 14, 1905, Ngindo tribesmen attacked a small party of missionaries on safari; all five, including Bishop Spiss (Roman Catholic Bishop of Dar es Salaam), were speared to death. The Ngindo drove their hated Akidas from their area and boycotted cotton picking.

By August 1905, Germans were restricted to four military stations: Wahenga, Kilosa, Iringa, and Songea. The apex of the rebellion came at Mahenge in August 1905, where several thousand Maji Maji warriors attacked but failed to overrun a German stronghold.

On October 21, 1905, the Germans retaliated with an attack on the camp of the unsuspecting Ngoni people who had joined the rebellion, killing hundreds of men, women, and children. This marked the beginning of a brutal counteroffensive that left an estimated 75,000 Maji Maji warriors dead by 1907. Forces from Iringa under Captain Migmann assisted in the recapture of Kabata by Major Johannes.

Reinforcements arrived from Germany, and in 1907 warriors were defeated by Governor Graf Von Gotzen. The Germans employed a scorched earth policy, destroying all property on sight.

The Africans lost faith in the magic water. Some surrendered while others fled to Mozambique.

Consequences of the Maji Maji Uprising

1. Massive loss of lives: 15 Europeans, 389 African soldiers, and between 75,000 and 100,000 insurgents died.
2. Massive destruction of property as villages and crops were burnt during the scorched earth policy.
3. Southern Tanganyika experienced severe famine as farms and granaries were destroyed, disrupting economic activities such as agriculture and trade.
4. Thousands of families were displaced due to fear gripping the land.
5. The war undermined the German economy in Tanganyika as numerous economic activities came to a standstill.
6. Loss of leadership in African communities created disorganization and demoralized the people. Most captured leaders were hanged or imprisoned; 47 Ngoni chiefs were hanged.
7. Africans resigned to colonial authority, breaking the spirit of resistance; the colony remained calm, realizing they lacked better weapons.
8. The uprising undermined Africans’ confidence in their traditional religion as the magic water failed to protect them.
9. The uprising laid the foundation for Tanganyika’s nationalism, inspiring later 20th-century freedom fighters who called for interethnic unity against European colonial rule.
10. Although unsuccessful, the uprising forced Kaiser Wilhelm’s government in Berlin to institute reforms in Tanganyika administration, realizing the potential cost of brutality.

Reforms introduced by the German administration after the Maji Maji uprising

1. Corporal punishment was abolished; settlers who mistreated workers were punished.
2. Forced labour for settler farms was abolished.
3. Communal cotton growing was stopped; Africans were to plant their own cotton and profit from it.
4. Better educational and medical services for Africans were introduced.
5. Africans were involved in administration as Akidas and Jumbes.
6. Newspapers inciting settlers against Africans were censured.
7. Kiswahili became an official language.
8. A colonial department was set up in 1907 to investigate and monitor German East Africa affairs.
9. The new governor rejected extra taxation of Africans.
10. Colonial administration was tailored to suit Africans.

Role of religion in the Maji Maji rebellion

1. It gave people courage, loyalty, and confidence to fight the Germans.
2. It gave spiritual strength to fight a superior force.
3. Religion helped wipe out suspicions among communities.
4. Religion stood above tribal loyalty; all followed it regardless of tribe.
5. Religious cults like Bolero/Kolelo promised destruction of the white man.
6. It provided the ideology guiding the war efforts.
7. It sustained the morale of the warriors.
8. It provided a common plan of action based on mass action.
9. It provided leadership during the war, e.g., prophetic leaders.
10. It addressed many African grievances from harsh German rule.

The Mandinka Resistance

Samori Toure (c. 1830-1900)

One of the great kings and fighters of African freedom was Samori Toure. Born about 1830 in Sanankaro, southeast of Kankan in present-day Guinea, Samori chose confrontation, using warfare and diplomacy, to deal with French colonial incursion.

His father was a Dyula trader, leading Toure to follow his family’s occupation. In the 1850s, he enrolled in the military forces at Madina (present-day Mali) to liberate his mother, captured during a slave raid by King Sori Birama of Bisandugu. Displaying extraordinary military skill, he and his mother were released in 1858.

Coupled with his experience as a Dyula trader, he built his army. Samori employed persuasion, threat, and war, like Sundiata in Mali, to organize Malinké chiefdoms and expand the Mandinka state. Between 1852 and 1882, he created the Mandinka Empire with the capital at Bisandugu in present-day Gambia.

Samori’s army was powerful, disciplined, professional, and trained in modern warfare. Equipped with European guns, the army had two flanks: infantry or sofa (30,000-35,000 men) and cavalry or sere (3,000 men). A third wing of 500 men formed specially trained bodyguards. In 1881, Samori extended the empire east to Sikasso (Mali) and west to the Futa Djallon Empire.

Meanwhile, the French extended eastwards from Futa Djalon while the Mandinka extended westwards towards Kenyeran trading centre, near the rich Bure Gold fields.

In 1882, at the height of the Mandinka empire, the French accused Samori of refusing to withdraw from an important market center, Kenyeran (his army had blockaded the market), and started war on him.

His bid to obtain assistance from the British failed as they were unwilling to enter conflict with the French. From 1882 to 1885, Samori fought the French and signed the infamous Bisandugu treaty on 28^th March 1886 and then 1887.

Significance of the Bisandugu treaties (1886-1887)

1. To Toure, these were acts to delay the real confrontation with the French until an opportune time.
2. He hoped to reach out to the British for a friendship treaty to secure trade routes from the north under Tieba of Sikasso.
3. The French hoped to use the treaty to arrange conquest of the Tukolor Empire.
4. The treaties put the Mandinka under brief French protection.

In 1888, he took up arms again when the French reneged on the treaty by attempting to foster rebellion within his empire.

In 1890, he reorganized the army and concluded a treaty with the British in Sierra Leone, obtaining modern weapons. He stressed defense and employed guerrilla tactics.

The Franco-Mandinka War (1891-1898)

Causes of the Franco-Mandinka War

1. Samori wanted to safeguard the independence and religion of his empire. Being a staunch Muslim, he could not tolerate non-Muslims on his land.
2. He was unwilling to lose the rich Bure Mines to the French through diplomacy or warfare.
3. His empire enjoyed military and economic superiority. The French incursion was a threat to his territorial expansion to be fought at all costs.
4. His participation in trade enabled him to acquire modern arms and build a well-trained army that did not fear the French. He had facilities for arms repair.
5. His scheme to play off the British against the French (1882-1889) failed, leaving fighting as the only option.
6. The French sold arms to his enemies, such as Tieba of Sikasso, to weaken Mandinka dominance.

Course of the Franco-Mandinka War

Samori waged a seven-year war against France, whose army was led by Major Archinard. In 1891, with improved weaponry and reorganized army, he defeated the French. In 1892, French forces overran major Mandinka centers, leaving death and destruction.

In 1894, the French assembled troops in western Sudan (Senegal, Mali, Niger) to fight Samori. Between 1893 and 1898, Samori’s army retreated eastward toward the Bandama and Como, resorting to scorched earth tactics, destroying evacuated land. He moved his capital east from Bisandugu to Dabakala, creating a second empire in 1893, and later to Kong in upper Côte d’Ivoire.

Disadvantages of Samori’s second empire

1. He was cut off from Freetown, where he used to buy firearms.
2. He was at war with communities he had attacked in expansionist wars.
3. His southern frontier was open to French attacks from the Ivory Coast.
4. He was cut off from his gold mines at Bure, losing wealth to maintain his army.
5. Occupation of the Asante Empire by the British in 1896 meant enemies surrounded Samori.

In 1898, weakened by famine and desertion, Samori was captured on September 29, 1898, at his camp in Gué(lé)mou near Sikasso in present-day Côte d’Ivoire and exiled to Ndjolé, Gabon, where he died of pneumonia on June 2, 1900.

Factors that aided Samori Toure in offering protracted resistance

1. He established military workshops with trained artisans to repair and manufacture weapons.
2. He was a courageous fighter, organizer, and military tactician, personally commanding his army.
3. He adopted scorched earth policy, mobilizing population to retreat, starving the French and delaying their advance.
4. Trade success enabled acquisition of guns and horses from the north.
5. Trade and tribute collection provided wealth to maintain a large army.
6. He had a large, strong, and well-organized army of 35,000 men.
7. He used diplomacy to buy time and negotiate with the British for arms supply.
8. French soldiers were ignorant of the land and faced tropical diseases.
9. Some soldiers had served in the French colonial army and knew French tactics.
10. He used Mandinka nationalism and Islam to unify the army, many believing they fought a Jihad.

Why Samori was finally defeated

1. Constant movement prevented engagement in economic activities to replenish supplies.
2. Abandoning rich Bure gold reserves meant loss of revenue.
3. Cut off from Freetown for firearms supply.
4. Lack of support from other African societies due to disunity; some assisted the French.
5. Second empire was open to attacks from British and French.
6. French had superior weapons and better resupply means.
7. Scorched earth policy resented by civilians, sparking local resistance.
8. Lack of total unity within his empire; non-Mandinka and non-Muslims supported the French.
9. British refusal to assist dented hopes of European ally.
10. Retreat to Liberia was blocked; capital besieged, leading to surrender.

The Ndebele Resistance

Background

The Ndebele were descendants of Nguni conquerors from South Africa (fleeing the Mfecane wars) who occupied what is now Matabeleland.

Mzilikazi (Ndebele King) welcomed the London Missionary Society led by Robert Moffat, who settled in Matabeleland in 1859. They assisted him in repairing guns, inoculating cattle, writing and interpreting letters, and providing medical care. He had little interest in foreigners and killed those accepting missionary influence. Mzilikazi died in 1868; his son Lobengula took over.

Lobengula was king at the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893. He used diplomacy to buy time before war with the British, even pitting European nations against each other (Boers and British). In 1870, he granted a mining concession to Thomas Baines of Durban Gold Mining Co. to diffuse white intervention. In 1888, Lobengula signed the Moffat treaty stating he would not sign other treaties without British permission. Rhodes sent Charles Rudd to compel Lobengula to accept the Rudd (mining) Concession, granting the company a mining monopoly in Matabeleland in exchange for a gunboat, salary, rifles, and cartridges. Lobengula’s conditions were not incorporated, and he was tricked into surrendering his kingdom.

In 1889, he repudiated the treaty and sent a delegation to London to meet Queen Victoria. Despite this, Rhodes, supported by the British crown, enacted a charter for the British South Africa Company (BSA Co) with rights to make treaties, laws, police natives, and grant minerals and land to settlers.

Lobengula was thus pushed into reluctant resistance by white greed.

Causes of the 1893 Ndebele War

1. The Ndebele detested British treachery in compelling Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
2. British occupation ended Ndebele power over the Shona, whom they raided for cattle and women.
3. British provocation by inciting Shona to raid Ndebele cattle; British fought Ndebele under pretext of protecting Mashonaland interests.
4. The immediate cause was Ndebele indunas punishing Shona who disobeyed Lobengula.

Course of the war

The war broke out in October 1893. The British army, led by Dr. Starr Jameson, comprised Shona police and mercenaries from South Africa. The Ndebele were weakened by smallpox and inferior weapons, leading to little confrontation. Lobengula evacuated his people towards Northern Rhodesia. At the battles of Shangani River and Mbembezi, the Ndebele were defeated by superior European gunfire. Lobengula fled to Bulawayo, where he died in 1894.

The conquerors exploited natives’ inner divisions; low-caste people remained passive, and some traitors helped invaders. After conquest, cattle were seized, land taken, and Africans confined to reserves. Small plots left were often prevented from cultivation due to tax collection and coerced labour on white-owned farms. The Ndebele were pushed to Gwaai and Shangani reserves.

Second Matabele War (Chimurenga War 1896-1897)

The war of liberation, dubbed Chimurenga, was a fulfillment of prophecy by Shona spirit Mbuya Nehanda, sister of prophet Chaminuka. Mlimo, the Ndebele spiritual leader, fomented the war, convincing Ndebele that white settlers caused drought, locust plagues, and cattle disease rinderpest.

Causes of the Chimurenga War

1. The war broke out because Shona and Ndebele feared disruption of their age-old trade and routes.
2. They fought for economic and trade independence. The company stopped Shona gold and ivory trade with Portuguese, forcing trade only with the company at low rates.
3. They fought against land alienation. The BSA Company alienated Ndebele land, pushing them to Gwaai and Shangani reserves with no water and tsetse flies.
4. The war eroded Ndebele traditional authority. Lobengula’s sons sent to South Africa for education were denied succession.
5. They detested removal of chiefs’ rights to allocate land; British ruined regimental system and refused to recognize indunas and Ndebele laws.
6. British assumed rights to punish subjects on behalf of chiefs; sometimes chiefs were punished, e.g., Chief Moghabi’s village was burnt.
7. They revolted against taxation, which interfered with their economic independence. Hut tax introduced in 1894 was collected brutally.
8. Ndebele resented recruitment of Shona in police force, feeling humiliated as Shona took revenge for years of oppression.
9. They resented general brutality of whites, including threats before pay causing workers to flee.
10. They wanted removal of forced labour policy on European mines and farms, where workers were whipped and worked long hours without choice.
11. Company disregarded Ndebele customs, treating all equally, including Holi (traditionally slaves). Traditional leaders were sometimes flogged before subjects.
12. Confiscation of 250,000 cattle in 1893 left Ndebele with 50,000 affected by disease; rights to raid Shona for cattle were denied.
13. Natural calamities blamed on whites by religious mediums like Mlimo increased resentment.
14. Influence of Mwari cult leaders urged resistance with assurance of victory and immunity against European bullets.

Course of the war

Mlimo’s call to battle occurred when BSA Co’s Administrator General Leander Starr Jameson sent most troops to fight the Transvaal Republic in the ill-fated Jameson Raid in December 1895, leaving defenses weak.

War in Matabeleland

On 29^th March 1896, Ndebele High Priest Umlugulu and senior indunas installed Umfezela as Lobengula’s successor. That day, Ndebele rebels killed whites on farms and African policemen in British forces. European settlers took refuge in fortified camps in Bulawayo, Gwelo, Belingwe, and Mangwe.

British sent troops to suppress Ndebele and Shona, costing many lives. Matabele military defiance ended when Burnham assassinated Mlimo, thanks to a Zulu informant. Ndebele agreed to peace talks with Rhodes, who disbanded Shona police and gave Ndebele headmen some powers.

War in Mashonaland

On 17 June 1896, Hwata dynasty at Mazowe attacked Alice Mine, driving British settlers from lands on 20 June. In the same month, Mashaykuma and spiritual leader Kagubi led Zezuru Shona in killing British farmer Norton and wife at Porta Farm.

With Matabeleland war ending in October 1897, Gen. Carrington concentrated forces on Mashonaland. Nehanda Nyakasikana and Kagubi Gumboreshumba were captured and executed in 1898; Mkwati, priest of Mwari shrine, died in Mutoko.

Traditional leaders like Chief Mashayamombe led resistance in Mhondoro, Gwabayana, Makoni, Mapondera, Mangwende, and Seke.

Role of religion in Shona-Ndebele resistance

1. Religion united Shona and Ndebele, previously bitter rivals, into a common plan of action.
2. It boosted morale and gave spiritual strength to fight a mighty force.
3. Religion provided a base for mass action and common ideology, derived from Umlugulu, chief priest of Ndebele Nyamanda, Lobengula’s eldest son, and Mlimo, medium of Mwari Cult.
4. Religious leaders provided leadership against white aggressors considered immoral and brutal.
5. Mwari Cult linked Ndebele and Shona; key representatives were Mkwati and Singinyamatse.

Why the Ndebele and Shona were defeated

1. Disunity among Africans and between Shona and Ndebele; they fought on different fronts. Some African communities supported British against Shona and Ndebele.
2. Ndebele social class lacked unity; aristocrats fought alone while former slaves cooperated with British.
3. British soldiers were better trained and received reinforcements from Botswana and South Africa.
4. Arrest and execution of African leaders like Nehanda, Kagubi, and Singinyamatse demoralized people.
5. British had superior weapons compared to African inferior weapons.
6. Magic failed to protect against enemy bullets; many, including Mwari cult leaders, were killed.
7. Determination of Cecil Rhodes, who negotiated peace with Ndebele, ended the war and made suppression of Shona easier.

Results of the war

1. Africans lost independence as British established authority.
2. Enormous loss of life and property.
3. African land was alienated and people confined to reserves.
4. Africans in reserves subjected to forced labour.
5. War led to rapid spread of Christianity as locals lost faith in traditional religion.
6. Ndebele indunas gained recognition as headmen.
7. Africans suffered severe famine as war hindered farming.
8. Colonial office in London lost confidence in company rule due to poor administration.

COLLABORATION

What is collaboration?

This was a style in which Africans responded to European intrusion through diplomacy, adaptation, or allying with Europeans for military support and material gains.

Reasons for collaboration by some African communities

1. Some African kings needed to safeguard themselves against internal and external enemies, e.g., Lewanika of Lozi facing threats from Ndebele and Ngoni.
2. Others wanted to promote trade with imperialists to gain material wealth, e.g., Wanga and Shona.
3. Influence of missionaries who convinced some leaders to collaborate for western education and civilization, e.g., François Coillard encouraged Lewanika to collaborate with British.
4. Some needed protection against other European powers, e.g., Lozi against Portuguese.
5. Others sought assistance to gain regional supremacy, e.g., Maasai declining as Nandi rose.
6. Some showed courtesy to visitors, assuming they would leave soon and unaware of European intentions, e.g., Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda.
7. Some leaders influenced communities, e.g., Chief Khama influenced Lewanika to resist.
8. Witnessing European military might, some saw resistance as futile.

The Lozi Collaboration

Factors influencing Lewanika of the Lozi to collaborate with the British

1. Encouraged by King Khama of Botswana, who benefited from British protection against the Dutch in South Africa.
2. Influenced by European missionaries, e.g., François Coillard, who convinced Lewanika to ally with British for western education.
3. Needed support against Portuguese and Germans approaching his territory.
4. Wanted British protection against African enemies like Ndebele and Shona.
5. Faced internal rebellion in 1884 and sought to safeguard his position.
6. Desired western education for his sons and civilization.
7. Wanted to promote trade between Britain and his people, acquiring European goods like firearms.
8. Feared and considered resistance to British military force futile.

How Lewanika collaborated with the British

He signed treaties, e.g., first with Harry Ware in 1889, then the Lochner Treaty of 1890 and the Coryndon Treaty of 1898, putting Bulozi under British protectorate.

Lewanika befriended British agents like Frank Lochner and missionary François Coillard, allowing establishment of a permanent mission station. He sent his sons to Coillard mission school as acceptance of westernization.

Lochner Treaty of 1890

Negotiated by François Coillard between Frank Lochner (on behalf of Rhodes) and Lewanika, the treaty put Lewanika’s kingdom under British South Africa Company protection.

Terms of the treaty

1. Lewanika gave BSA Company mining rights in Bulozi except certain farming and iron mining areas.
2. The company promised to protect the kingdom from outside attacks.
3. The British company promised to pay the king 2,000 sterling pounds a year and 4% royalties of all minerals mined.
4. Promises to develop trade, build schools, and develop telegraphy.
5. Lewanika would remain king but as a constitutional monarch, not absolute ruler.
6. A British resident would be posted in Lealui, the capital, to monitor company activities and advise Lewanika on foreign affairs.

In 1897, Robert T. Coryndon was sent as British resident in Bulozi. He arranged signing of the Lawley Treaty of 1898, reducing Lewanika’s governed area.

In October 1900, Lewanika signed the Coryndon Treaty.

The Coryndon Treaty (1900)

Terms included:

1. British government responsible for Bulozi administration; company administrator answered to High Commissioner at the Cape.
2. Company appointed officials and paid for administration.
3. Company provided schools, industries, postal services, transport, and telegraph facilities.
4. Lewanika received only 850 sterling pounds yearly stipend.
5. Company allowed to acquire land on Batoka plateau.
6. Company maintained rights to prospect for minerals.
7. Lewanika to stop slavery and witchcraft.
8. Lewanika made paramount chief of Barotse with reduced powers as more white settlers arrived in 1905.

Lewanika lost independence like other collaborators or resistors.

Results of Lewanika collaboration

1. Schools and health centres were established.
2. He received British protection from Ndebele attacks.
3. Marked beginning of erosion of independence and traditional authority; administration taken over by British South Africa Company.
4. Recognized as paramount chief of Barotse with protection.
5. Received £2,000 yearly payment.
6. BSA Company controlled minerals.
7. Lozi land alienated and given to British settlers.
8. Lozi forced to pay taxes to maintain administration.
9. Lozi forced to work as labourers on settler farms.
10. Lozi employed in civil service.
11. BSA Company developed infrastructure in Barotseland.
12. Barotseland used as base to conquer neighbouring communities.

The Buganda Collaboration

By mid-19^th century, Buganda was the most powerful state in interior East Africa. Despite this, Kabakas (Mutesa I and Mwanga) chose collaboration over resistance.

Why Kabaka Mutesa I (1856-1884) collaborated with Europeans

1. His kingdom was under threat from Khedive Ishmael of Egypt; he sought British assistance.
2. Threat from traditional enemy, Omukama Kabalega of Bunyoro Kingdom.
3. Wanted to establish centralized religious authority over Buganda to counter power of Lubaale Cult priests and Muslim influence.
4. Desired modernization and prestige from association with Europeans, e.g., western education and medicine.
5. Desired trade with Europeans to acquire goods, especially firearms.

Kabaka Mwanga (1884-1898)

Mwanga’s main problem was religious indecision causing political instability. In January 1885, he executed three C.M.S converts. In October 1885, he had Bishop Hannington killed. In May 1886, 30 young converts were burnt at Namugongo for refusing to renounce Christianity.

In 1888, urged by traditionalists, he unsuccessfully attempted to expel foreigners, blaming them for chaos. He was deposed by combined Muslims, Catholics, and Protestants, replaced by brother Kiwewa, sharing authority with foreigners.

In 1890, Mwanga recaptured the throne with Christian and Kabalega support. He signed a protectorate treaty with Carl Peters for Germans and rejected a treaty offer by Frederick Jackson of IBEACO.

In 1891, Mwanga signed a treaty of collaboration with Frederick Lugard, first British administrator sent to Uganda, after the Heligoland Treaty of 1890 placed Uganda in British sphere of influence.

Why Mwanga collaborated

1. To acquire protection from internal and external enemies, e.g., religious groups and Banyoro.
2. To secure his position and safeguard Baganda from interference.
3. To gain regional supremacy over surrounding kingdoms of Bunyoro, Ankole, and Toro.

Throughout religious conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, Mwanga supported Catholics, to the chagrin of British administrators. He was deposed by Lugard in 1894 after capture of his palace at Mengo.

Under Mwanga II, Buganda became a protectorate in 1894. He declared war on Britain on July 6, 1897, was defeated at the Battle of Buddu on July 20, fled to German East Africa, was arrested and interned at Bukoba, escaped, led a rebel army, was defeated again in 1898, and exiled to Seychelles. He was baptized Daniel in exile and died in 1903. His remains were repatriated and buried at Kasubi in 1910.

The war was expensive; the new commissioner of Uganda in 1900, Sir Harry H. Johnston, established efficient administration and levied taxes quickly through the Buganda Agreement of 1900.

The Buganda Agreement

Signed in 1900 between Sir Harry Johnston and Apollo Kagwa representing the Baganda.

Reasons for signing the Buganda Agreement

1. To define Buganda’s position in the country.
2. To introduce law and order.
3. To reduce British administration costs as Buganda was to meet administration costs.
4. To define relationship between Buganda and British government.

Terms of the Buganda Agreement

1. Buganda laws remained effective unless conflicting with protectorate laws. Buganda was ruled by Kabaka with assistance of Katikiro. Lukiko was the legitimate law-making body with 89 members.
2. Buganda people to pay poll and hut tax; no tax levied without Lukiko approval. Revenue merged with other provinces.
3. Kabaka, ministers, and chiefs to be paid as British government employees.
4. Buganda boundaries defined to include parts of Bunyoro (ten sazas acquired). Kingdom expanded to twenty counties, each under a Saza Chief.
5. Land tenure changed to include freehold (Mailo) and crown land. Crown land for protectorate government; Mailo land for Kabaka, ministers, and chiefs.
6. Buganda became a province within protectorate; Ganda system recognized and modified with three ministers and Lukiko composition.

Results of the Buganda Agreement

1. British overlordship confirmed over Buganda.
2. Buganda reduced to a province.
3. Kabaka’s power reduced; lost power to give/withhold land and appoint/transfer chiefs.
4. Agreement led to early nationalist movements, e.g., Bataka Opposition Movement in 1920s by landless class.
5. Modern economy and western education introduced, with Buganda leading.
6. Buganda formed basis for British administration; Baganda appointed as administrators.
7. Strengthened Buganda’s special position relative to other Ugandan communities.
8. Sazas increased from 10 to 20; saza chiefs got land and right to impose land rent.
9. Led to expansion of Christianity and decline of Islamic influence.
10. Bunyoro became aggrieved due to loss of territory transferred to Buganda, causing later friction.

Results of African collaboration

1. Collaborating communities lost independence and were colonized; Bulozi and Buganda became British protectorates.
2. Collaborating leaders gained recognition but with reduced powers; Lewanika became paramount chief of Barotseland; Kabaka gained title “His Highness.”
3. Collaborators secured protection from traditional enemies; Lozi protected from Ndebele; Baganda from Banyoro.
4. Collaborators were used by Europeans to exert authority over other African societies; Baganda administered Busoga.
5. Collaborators benefited from missionary work; Lewanika’s sons gained western education; hospitals and schools built.
6. Increased trade between collaborators and Europeans; communities gained European goods like glassware, clothes, guns, and ammunition.
7. Collaborators, like resistors, were subjected to economic exploitation such as land alienation, mining, taxation, and forced labour.