History and Government Form 1 Notes : CHAPTER 3. DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CHAPTER 3.
DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Early Agriculture

Early agriculture developed when man domesticated animals such as sheep, cows, and goats, and when he started growing crops like wheat, barley, figs, and vegetables.

At first, early man was mainly engaged in hunting and gathering. Later, man accidentally realized that animals and plants could be domesticated and he could easily obtain food even when weather conditions were unfavorable. Man took control of the animals which were friendly and he had to feed them.

Man therefore put up permanent settlements. It is this settled lifestyle which enabled man to realize that some of the grains which fell near his homestead germinated and grew up to produce more grains. This realization made man start planting grains near his homestead.

Early agriculture developed in a number of countries such as Mesopotamia, China, Ethiopia, Egypt, India, Sudan, Palestine, Thailand, Peru, Iran, Mexico, Turkey, and Israel.

Before the domestication of animals and plants, early man’s food was edible roots, meat from wild animals, birds’ eggs, honey, vegetables, wild fruits, and nuts. When man domesticated animals, they provided him with meat, milk, skins for making clothing and comfort.

Factors which encouraged the development of early agriculture

Man started agriculture because there was a need for a reliable food supply. The invention of agricultural tools encouraged man to cultivate bigger plots of land. Rapid increase in population also encouraged people to increase their farmland in order to get more food which was enough for the growing population.

The beginning of settled life made man stay in one place until the crops matured. This in turn contributed to the production of surplus food which encouraged trade and therefore the need to produce more.

After man settled, there was realization that friendly animals could be tamed easily and plants could be grown near homesteads. This later brought about specialization even in other economic activities like making hoes, pots, and knives which boosted agricultural production.

The effects of the development of early agriculture on man’s life

The development of early agriculture had great impact on man’s life as follows:

1. Adequate food was obtained resulting in an increase in human population.
2. Man was able to specialize in other activities, for example weaving, pottery, and cloth making.
3. Man was able to establish permanent settlements.
4. Urbanization resulted where man settled.
5. Sociopolitical institutions which later gave rise to governments developed.
   1. Production of surplus food led to development of trade.
6. Man developed religious beliefs. He performed religious rites and ceremonies in order to influence phenomena like drought and floods.

Factors which favored the development of early agriculture (crop growing) in ancient Egypt

Egypt was one of the countries of the world where early agriculture took place. This was due to the presence of indigenous crops like wheat and barley which were easily grown along the Nile valley. The fertile soils (silt) were deposited along the river valley during floods and this favored growth of crops.

The invention of writing (Hieroglyphics) helped much in keeping farm records. Also, the introduction of irrigation by use of the River Nile boosted agriculture. The basin and shadoof irrigation methods were discovered.

The invention of the calendar helped in marking seasons and when the Nile flooded. The introduction of the ox-drawn wooden plough enabled more land to be ploughed.

Finally, the political stability in Egypt enabled agricultural activities to be conducted and also other activities such as trade because the Arabian Desert, the Nubian Desert, and the Mediterranean Sea protected Egypt from foreign invasion.

The economic impact of early agriculture in Egypt

• It led to increase in food production.
• It led to increase in trade.
• It led to division of labor.
• It led to specialization.
• It contributed to the emergence of small skill industries such as weaving, basketry, and pottery.
• It led to improved methods of cultivation, for example irrigation and use of the plough.
• It led to urbanization.
• It resulted in the emergence of a class of wealthy people in Egypt.
• More land was cultivated.

Why early agriculture began along the river valleys in Egypt and Mesopotamia

Early agriculture began along the river valleys of Egypt and Mesopotamia because:

The rivers provided reliable water for irrigation and also carried rich soils (silt) and deposited it on riverbanks where farmers planted their crops.

Rivers provided means of transport. People had established settlements along river valleys because Egypt and Mesopotamia are in desert zones. Those people planted crops on the riverbanks.

The factors which favored the development of early agriculture in Mesopotamia

Like in Egypt, the following factors favored the development of early agriculture in Mesopotamia:

• Invention of the plough.
• Introduction of irrigation.
• Fertile soils (silt) which were deposited along riverbanks.
• Establishment of permanent settlements.
• Invention of writing which enabled farmers to keep records.

The impact of the development of early agriculture in Mesopotamia

Early agriculture in Mesopotamia led to specialization in other activities such as pottery and weaving. It led to division of labour. Some people became cultivators while others became livestock keepers.

It also led to the introduction of better farming tools and increase in food production. A class of wealthy people emerged. It contributed to the emergence of urban centres along the Euphrates and Tigris valleys.

There were improved methods of cultivation, for example use of the plough. It led to increased trade and also encouraged development of cottage industries. Finally, population increased as a result of increase in food production.

Crops which were domesticated along Tigris and Euphrates River valley in Mesopotamia

The crops which were domesticated were wheat, barley, figs, olives, vegetables, and vines. The first crops to be domesticated were wheat and barley. The cultivation of barley and wheat spread to Egypt later.

The invention of the ox-drawn plough helped in the cultivation of large areas of land while the invention of the seed drill made the planting of seeds easier.

The Agrarian Revolution in Britain

Agrarian Revolution is the change in methods of cultivation and livestock rearing (agriculture). Britain was the first country to experience the Agrarian Revolution. This change in Britain was brought mainly by the invention and use of machines.

The Agrarian Revolution was also sped by use of farm inputs, for example fertilizers, pesticides, and curatives for livestock diseases. This change reduced manual labour on farms in Britain. However, food production increased.

The agricultural practices in Britain before the Agrarian Revolution were:

1. Shifting cultivation – land was cultivated for a number of years until the soil got exhausted. It was then abandoned and the owner went to look for another virgin land.
2. Small scale farming – crops were planted on small plots and there was little harvest.
3. Subsistence farming (peasant farming) – the crops grown were for human consumption and not for sale.
4. Broadcasting (scattering) of seeds.
5. Strip system or open field system – farmland was split into small plots called strips.
6. Intercropping – a number of different crops were planted on the same plot at the same time.
7. Use of simple agricultural implements e.g. hoes and digging sticks.

It is important to note that the open field system hindered full utilization of land because the exhausted land was left to fallow. The road carts used and the footpaths used by people wasted a lot of land.

There was time wastage as people travelled long distances to go and work in their scattered strips. It was also not possible to use machines to prepare the small strips. Livestock rearing was discouraged due to constant disease infections and shortage of cattle feeds during winter.

The factors which led to the Agrarian Revolution in Britain

The Agrarian Revolution in Britain was caused by an increase in human population which led to high demand for food. The development of new farming tools and machinery, for example threshing machines and the seed drill, led to enlargement of farms.

Industrial Revolution contributed because industrialization provided the agricultural sector with inputs and markets. Replacement of the open field system by the enclosure system enabled farmers to improve their property without being hindered by neighbours.

Development of new methods of breeding livestock increased output while the development of agricultural research contributed to improved soils and crop yields.

Development of scientific methods such as food preservation by means of canning and refrigeration encouraged farmers to increase production. Finally, land consolidation enabled land to be properly utilized because it increased farm sizes and therefore encouraged use of machines.

The Agricultural changes which occurred in Britain during the Agrarian Revolution

The high demand for food in Britain brought about the following agricultural changes:

1. Land was consolidated and people were forced to fence it.
2. New methods of farming, for example crop rotation, cross-breeding, use of farming machines, and use of fertilizers and pesticides were introduced.
3. New crops like potatoes were introduced.
4. A variety of farm tools were invented, for example seed-drills, ploughs, and threshing machines.
5. The fallow system of farming was discouraged.
6. The poor sold their land to the rich and were left with no farmland.

The effects of the Agrarian Revolution in Britain

1. Food production increased due to the enclosure system, better farming methods, and use of machines, leading to a rapid increase in population.
2. It also led to expansion of local and international trade due to increase in agricultural surpluses.
3. The use of new improved farming methods led to food security in Britain.
4. There was diversification of agriculture as a result of introduction of new crops such as potatoes and citrus fruits.
5. The agricultural research findings led to the development of exotic livestock breeds like Friesian and better farming methods such as crop rotation and use of fertilizers.
6. There were improved standards of living and high life expectancy due to production of enough food.
7. The price of land in Britain went up due to the Agrarian Revolution.
8. It contributed to the improvement of transport and communication facilities.
9. It also contributed to the emigration of Britons abroad, for example to the U.S.A. and South Africa.
10. Agrarian Revolution provided the newly established industries with raw materials and labour.
11. The poor were displaced by the rich leading to rural-urban migration and hence expansion of urban centres.
12. Establishment of large scale farming in Britain replaced subsistence farming.
13. Agrarian Revolution in Britain gave rise to class divisions. There was a class of rich landlords and a class of poor landless people.

The Agrarian Revolution in U.S.A. before 18^th Century

The British citizens who were displaced after the introduction of the enclosure system in Britain migrated to the USA and introduced new methods of farming.

The immigrants introduced different varieties of crops and animal breeds from Europe. They used slave labour on their farms to work in the cotton, tobacco, and maize plantations.

The development of agriculture in USA before 1800 was facilitated by the following factors:

1. The climate of U.S.A. was suitable for agriculture. Farmers planted cotton, tobacco, wheat, and maize and also kept livestock.

2. Europeans who migrated into U.S.A. led to population increase and high demand for food. At first, they relied on food from Britain.
3. A large number of enterprising Europeans settled in U.S.A. and tried to make a living through agriculture.
4. Availability of indigenous crops like yams and beans contributed to the development of agriculture in U.S.A.
5. Rivers in U.S.A. such as the Colorado, Sacramento, and Arkansas provided water for irrigation.
6. European emigrants introduced new methods of farming in U.S.A. such as crop rotation, use of fertilizers, and interbreeding.
7. Introduction of new crops promoted development of agriculture.
8. There existed suitable soils for different types of crops.
9. Slave labour was available to work on European farms in U.S.A.

The Agricultural practices in U.S.A. before the Agrarian Revolution

The indigenous inhabitants of USA were the Red Indians. They were subsistence farmers who grew crops such as cotton, yams, beans, potatoes, cassava, tobacco, and maize. When the British immigrants arrived in USA, they found that the Red Indians were cultivating and applying the following agricultural practices:

• Shifting cultivation
• Small scale farming
• Broadcasting of seeds
• Use of simple agricultural implements
• Inter-cropping

The British immigrants then introduced new methods of farming which included plantation farming, a form of large-scale farming.

The factors that led to the Agrarian Revolution in U.S.A.

• The introduction of the enclosure system in Britain forced the landless to migrate to various parts of USA. Ownership of private land was legalized and this helped to promote agriculture.

• The introduction of slave labour ensured adequate supply of labour for farming.
• Farming land was available for cultivating crops such as wheat, tobacco, and cotton. Wasteland was also reclaimed.
• The increased demand for agricultural raw materials by Europeans for use in their industries encouraged development and expansion of agriculture. The textile industries in Britain, for example, demanded cotton from USA.
• The USA government recognized individual land ownership. This encouraged settler farming. Farmers were also supported by the government by being provided with aid which enabled them to turn to large scale farming.
• The land was suitable for different crops such as tobacco, maize, cotton, and wheat.
• The cotton gin was invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney. This led to increase in cotton production especially in southern USA because it separated seeds from fibre, made threads, and wove cloth.
• Improved transport and communication led to increase in crop production because the produce reached the market in time.
• The mechanisation of agriculture encouraged establishment of big plantations. For example, John Deere invented the steel plough, easing cultivation.
• Agricultural research facilitated the Agrarian Revolution in USA because new varieties were introduced in the area of livestock and crop production.
• Introduction of new methods of food preservation such as canning and refrigeration encouraged farmers to increase yields because perishable foods could be preserved in the area and be exported.
• Increase in population created demand for food which contributed to increase in food production and therefore expansion of agriculture to satisfy the internal and external market.
• The introduction of new methods of controlling animal and plant diseases led to increased production.
• The division of USA into farming zones enabled crops to be grown where the climate was favourable for each particular crop. Farmers established the corn belt, the cotton belt, the wheat belt, and livestock zones.

The effects of the Agrarian Revolution in USA

As food production increased, there was also an increase in population. The Agrarian Revolution in USA encouraged and promoted export trade with agricultural products. It encouraged and accelerated the trans-Atlantic slave trade in a bid to acquire labour for use in plantations.

It also contributed to growth of industries in Europe hence the Industrial Revolution because it provided Europe with raw material for her industries. New and better farming methods such as crop rotation, use of fertilizers, and planting in rows were introduced.

Transport and communication were improved through establishment of roads, railways, and water transport. Improved seeds and livestock breeds were introduced giving rise to improved agricultural output. The standard of living of the people of USA was improved. Scientific research was highly encouraged in order to come up with better livestock breeds.

Many parts of USA were opened up for farming and for settlements. There was migration of people from rural areas to urban areas leading to expansion of towns. There was an increase in food production and diversification of agriculture through introduction of new crop and animal breeds.

The Agrarian Revolution in USA encouraged scientific inventions and discoveries such as the invention of the steel plough and refrigeration facilities. It encouraged many Europeans to come and settle in USA because land was getting scarce in Europe and many Europeans were becoming landless.

Food Situation in Africa and The Rest of the Third World

The term “Third World” refers to the developing countries in Africa, South America, and Asia. Majority of the third world countries were formerly under colonial rule.

Developing countries are not as industrialized as the developed countries such as Japan, Britain, and USA. Almost all developing countries suffer from acute food shortages.

Why many countries in Africa, Asia, and South America suffer from acute food shortage

1. There are unreliable climatic conditions; for example, some countries experience too much rain or too little rain resulting in floods and drought. For example, India has experienced floods several times while African countries lying along the Sahara desert experience drought.
2. There is rapid population growth. Birth rate has increased. This has outstripped the rate of agricultural production therefore making it difficult for the country to produce enough food for the ever-growing population.
3. Africans in particular have placed more emphasis on cash crop production ignoring the importance of subsistence crops. They have even ignored planting drought-resistant crops such as cassava, arrow roots, yams, and sweet potatoes.
4. Inadequate transport and communication facilities hinder marketing of agricultural products and even distribution of food.
5. Political instability brought about by civil strife hinders the development of agriculture. This has been experienced in Uganda, Sudan, Somalia, and Democratic Republic of Congo.

Rebels preparing for a strike.

6. Poor storage facilities as well as shortage of storage facilities lead to food wastage. A lot of grains are destroyed by weevils and rats.
7. Importation of food and dependence on foreign food aid hinder those who strive to improve agricultural output.
8. Scarcity of capital makes it difficult for developing countries to mechanize their agricultural sector. Farmers are also unable to purchase farm inputs such as fertilizers and chemicals for controlling pests.
9. Poor farming methods such as inter-cropping result in low agricultural output. Also, many farmers do not apply fertilizers on their farms. As a result, they harvest very little.
10. Natural calamities such as locust and army worm invasion, hailstones, and also wild animals such as monkeys reduce yields.
11. Land tenure systems affect food production especially where a few people are landowners and yet they don’t make full use of the land.
12. The high rate of poverty in many countries makes people experience food shortage even when food is available elsewhere because they cannot afford to buy it.
13. Negative attitudes towards certain foodstuffs have made people abandon growing these crops. For example, in some areas of Kenya, cassava is associated with people who are poor. The rich will not grow it.
14. Poor economic planning and poor marketing policies contribute to acute food shortages.
15. Sometimes hoarding and smuggling of food lead to acute shortages. This is because all the food is taken away and the country is left short of food.
16. Yields have also been affected by diseases and pests which affect crops. Livestock diseases and pests also kill many farm animals.
17. There has been an acute shortage of labour due to rural-urban migration of people. This has also reduced yields.
18. HIV/AIDS has caused death and also weakened many able-bodied productive people who could engage in farming.

Ways countries with food problems have attempted to solve them

Countries with food shortages have tried to improve soil fertility through crop rotation, crossbreeding, and use of chemical fertilizers. Research stations have been established to improve food production.

Large scale and small-scale irrigation schemes have been established and idle land is being reclaimed. Swamps have been drained and crop growing has been established. Diversified agriculture is being encouraged to replace the monoculture economy.

Farmers are provided with financial assistance in the form of loans. Marketing facilities have been improved to encourage disposal of surplus food while farmers have been motivated through raising the prices of food crops from time to time. Through research, chemicals to control pests and plant diseases have been introduced.

Many countries are engaged in consolidating land to encourage individual land tenure. Farmers are from time to time encouraged to grow drought-resistant crops such as yams, sweet potatoes, onions, and cassava. At the same time, extension services have been provided to farmers.

The African, Asian, and South American leaders as well as the international community members are encouraging political stability in order to encourage investment in agriculture and increase agricultural yields.

Finally, transport and communication are being improved through establishment of rural access roads to enable transportation of foodstuffs.

The face of hunger in Africa

The impact of acute food shortages in Africa

1. Death rate has increased especially in famine-stricken areas.
2. Dependency on imported food has increased.
3. Food prices rise sharply due to high demands and shortages.
4. Famine-stricken people blame their government when they fail to get relief food. This attitude may cause civil unrest and national political instability.
5. Famine causes people to wander from place to place looking for food leading to social interactions especially by people who meet in the marketplaces.
6. There is a very high degree of dependency on foreign aid and grants from donor countries.
7. There is migration of people from drought and famine-stricken areas to towns and to other places where food can be obtained.
8. There are rapid outbreaks of deficiency diseases.
9. It encourages increase in crime as social evils such as robbery and prostitution.
10. Acute food shortages breed hatred between those who are rich and the poor.
11. In areas with acute food shortages, malnutrition has retarded normal growth of children and caused high child mortality.

Review Questions

1. What factors enabled early agriculture to develop?
2. Describe the development of early agriculture in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
3. What were the benefits of the domestication of animals and plants to early man?
4. Identify the impact of the development of early agriculture in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
5. How did the Agrarian Revolution in Britain contribute to the Agrarian Revolution in USA?
6. a) Explain the causes of food shortages in the developing countries.
   b) How have the governments concerned tried to rectify the problems of food shortages in the developing countries?