GEOGRAPHY A LEVEL(FORM SIX) NOTES – REGIONAL FOCAL STUDIES -5.5 SUSTAINABLE USE OF FORESTRY

REGIONAL FOCAL STUDIES – 5.5 SUSTAINABLE USE OF FORESTRY

Forest is an extensive area covered by different types of tree species, which can be either natural or man-made. The process in which an individual purposefully plants trees and takes care of them until harvest time, and then after harvesting replants trees with proper management, is referred to as silviculture.

Distribution of Forests in the World

In the Tropical Zone

There are evergreen rainforests in equatorial areas where there is high rainfall, tropical mansion climatic region, savanna woodland in areas with alternating dry and wet seasons (occupying the largest part of Africa), and coastal forests including mangrove vegetation. The equatorial rainforest is found in areas like Congo, Amazonia, as well as West Africa and Gabon. Tropical areas usually provide hardwood.

In the Temperate Zone

There are hardwood species like oak, ash, beech, and poplar, for example in northern China, Japan, West, South and Central Europe, and eastern North America. Softwood species of coniferous forest like pines, fir, and spruce are found in Norway; larch and Parana pine in South America (Brazil). Coniferous forests are located chiefly in North America, Central and East North America, Southern USA, and Northern Europe like Sweden, Norway, and Finland.

Main Forest Products

1. Poles for construction of houses and electrification.
2. Timber for furniture, construction of houses and bridges, containers, paper, and railway sleepers.
3. Resins for making rubber like in Brazil, oil, and gum.
4. Fiber materials for human and animal consumption.
5. Fruits and flowers for human and animal consumption.
6. Tannin, a substance used for converting hide into leather.

Importance of Forest

1. Forest forms a protective cover to the ground and hence prevents soil erosion from degrading the surface of the earth.
2. It provides habitat for animals and birds of different varieties.
3. Forests contribute to the modification of the climate, especially through rainfall formation and moisture conservation.
4. Forests introduce oxygen to the environment, produced during photosynthesis. Trees clean the air by absorbing carbon dioxide; hence, the forest is an oxygen sink.
5. Trees are a source of fuel energy since they are used for firewood and charcoal making.
6. They provide building materials like poles and timber.
7. The forest is important in the paper and pulp industry, from which writing materials are produced.
8. Some tree species are used for making medicine, and some provide fruits as well as ornamental flowers.
9. It contributes to soil development through rotting of leaves, which leads to the formation of humus.
10. The liquid material from trees is used for making gum, dyestuffs, and other chemicals.
11. They maintain water sources like rivers, catchment areas, springs, and lakes.
12. Forests are used for scientific studies (research).
13. Tourism can develop since many tree species promote scenic views, attracting tourists. Forests also provide good centers for recreation.

Timber Industry

Timber industry is the activity involving the production of timber and other processes associated with timber production. Timber is the wood material delivered from the forest.

Factors that Encourage the Development of Timber Industry in Any Country Include:

1. Availability of food species of forest trees in great amounts.
2. Capital to be invested in the exploitation of forests and timber production.
3. Minimal competition from other economic sectors like mining and agriculture.
4. Efficient and effective transport and communication to facilitate coordination of ferrying timber products.
5. Advanced technology for effective extraction and management of the forest.
6. Strong government support, financial or technical, and organizing markets for timber products.
7. Reliable food supply for people involved in lumbering and timber industry.
8. Reliable water supply for washing, cleaning, and transportation (in rivers).
9. Power availability, since timber industry needs a lot of power for effective operation. For example, in Sweden, great hydro-electric power from the power plant at Porjus has stimulated timber industry development.
10. Market availability, both local and international, is another impetus for timber industry development. Timber industry in Sweden grew fast due to increased demand for sawn timber and paper worldwide.

Forest Resources Management

This involves the control and use of forest resources for different purposes. Forest management is part and parcel of forestry. Forestry refers to the science of managing forest resources for human use. The importance of forest management is to ensure adequate supplies of timber, water, wildlife, grazing, and recreation areas are maintained. Forests in many parts of the world face problems of poor management, associated with excessive exploitation of resources.

Effects of Poor Resource Management

Poor management leads to deforestation since trees are cut or areas cleared without or with minimal replacement. Causes of deforestation include shifting cultivation, plantation agriculture, cutting trees for fuel, timber and settlement, rapid population growth leading to new settlement and farm areas, development of transport and communication systems, and mining activities. Deforestation leads to increased soil erosion, flooding, reduction in arable land, excessive evaporation causing drought, loss of animal and plant species, decline in tourism, destruction of animal habitats and catchment areas, desertification, atmospheric pollution leading to greenhouse effect and global warming.

Effect of Rapid Population Growth on Forest Resources

1. Clearing of vegetation leading to deforestation.
2. Increased demand for firewood, timber, charcoal, and settlement areas.
3. Disappearance of valuable species due to excessive cutting.
4. Increased distance from homesteads to forest resources as nearby forests are cleared.

Problems Associated with Exploitation of Forest Resources

1. Poor capital, especially in developing countries like Tanzania and Congo.
2. In tropical areas, many species exist but few are commercially valuable.
3. Poor transport, especially in equatorial areas where land is swampy or waterlogged due to high rainfall.
4. Dense tropical forests make exploitation difficult.
5. Low technology leading to use of poor tools.
6. Coniferous trees in temperate areas face acid rain problems due to industrial emissions and leaching, causing tree death.
7. Rapid population growth leads to forest depletion for settlement and farms.
8. Competition from other economic sectors like industry and mining.

Solving Problems Associated with Forest Exploitation (Forest Conservation Measures)

1. Planting trees where others have been cut (reforestation) and planting trees where none existed before (afforestation).
2. Setting aside protected areas.
3. Educating people on forest conservation and encouraging participation.
4. Clear policies on proper forest resource use.
5. Use of alternative energy sources such as solar, geothermal, biogas, and hydroelectric power.
6. Careful land use planning to avoid tree destruction.
7. Population control to reduce pressure on forest resources and land.
8. Improving agricultural methods and discouraging shifting cultivation.
9. Destocking (reducing animal numbers) to prevent vegetation destruction.
10. Encouraging agroforestry.
11. Controlled cutting of trees for timber production.
12. Introducing new and fast-growing tree species.

Agroforestry means the practice of intercropping trees and crops on the same farm. Trees can be intercropped with crops like beans and bananas.

Advantages of Intercropping Trees with Crops (Agroforestry)

1. Trees prevent soil erosion while crops like beans add nutrients to the soil.
2. Farmers get a variety of products from the same farm: forest and crop products.
3. Family members get fuelwood from the homestead without traveling far.

Disadvantages Related to Agroforestry

1. Larger trees may overshadow annual crops, reducing their production by taking moisture, nutrients, and blocking light.
2. Some trees produce poisonous substances harmful to crops.
3. Mechanization is difficult due to the presence of trees.

Examples of Areas with Timber Industry

Sweden, Canada, and parts of Japan have coniferous trees providing most forest resources. Major species include oak, chestnut, spruce, Douglas fir, pine, and sugar maple. These have led to the development of timber, pulp, and paper industries.

In Africa, Areas with Forestry Industry Include:

1. Southern Nigeria, where sapele is common, with large sawmills, veneer, and plywood factories.
2. The Congo Basin, where Ocoume and Limba are important species. Cameroon utilizes Iroko, Obeche, and Mahogany.
3. Ivory Coast, with plywood and veneer factories. Timber exports include Mahogany, Makove, and Edinam.
4. Swaziland, with Pinus patula trees and forests like Nklangano and Great Forest. The industry is well planned and government-financed but faces problems like overgrazing, settlement, cultivation, and frequent fires.
5. Gabon, where timber industry is carried out by large companies and families (16% of production). Timber species include Ocoume, ebony, and mahogany.

Case Study: Forestry in Canada

Sixty percent of Canada is covered by forests, largely coniferous, with main species including spruce, hemlock, cedar, and Douglas fir. Spruce is mainly used for newsprint; Canada is the largest producer, accounting for 36% of world production. Douglas fir is used for sawn wood. Canada has a large timber surplus due to rugged landscape and sparse population, resulting in less extreme exploitation compared to other countries.

Production is smaller than the USA due to inaccessibility; many forests lie far from roads and railways, such as prairie forests.

Main Areas Producing Timber in Canada

British Columbia and Eastern Canada forest zones are the main producers.

British Columbia

Located in western Canada, it has large forests of Douglas fir, hemlock, spruce, and cedar. It produces sawn wood for furniture and accounts for 50% of Canada’s annual timber output. The economy benefits from water and forest resource exploitation.

Factors Influencing Easy Exploitation in British Columbia

1. Rugged landscape supports natural forest growth and limits other economic activities.
2. Sparse population allows large virgin forest areas.
3. Scientific advancement and mechanization improve efficiency.
4. Sound forestry management strategies.
5. Ideal climate with heavy rainfall from the Pacific Ocean and favorable temperatures.
6. Availability of valuable species like Douglas fir, hemlock, red cedar, spruce, and balsam.
7. Availability of skilled labor and mechanized forest operations.
8. Capital availability for forestry industry establishment.
9. Excellent water transport, roads, and railways connecting water bodies and lumbering areas.
10. Long and indented coastline providing good accessibility; 70% of Canada’s accessible reserves are here.

Logging occurs year-round using a “log high” and “log low” system, with summer logging at higher altitudes and winter logging at lower altitudes.

Processing centers are at Port Alberni and Vancouver Island, with timber-based industries in Vancouver, New Westminster, and Chilliwack. British Columbia is a major pulp and paper region.

Problems Facing Timber Industry in British Columbia

Two main problems:

• Fire during summer: Fires spread rapidly, destroying timber. Causes include careless holidaymakers and discarded cigarettes. Efforts include fire guards, patrols, mobile firefighters, and modern methods like log patching.
• Overexploitation: Near Port Alberni and Vancouver, addressed by “log high” and “log low” policies and silviculture (replanting and thinning).

Other problems include long gestation periods due to harsh climate and inaccessibility due to snowfall and rugged terrain.

Eastern Canada

Main lumbering areas are the Maritime Provinces and the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes region. Main species include spruce, balsam, fir, and various pines. Red spruce is important for pulping industries. Lumbering and timber industries concentrate in Quebec and Ontario, supported by many rivers used for hydroelectric power, cheap log transport, and clean water for pulp processing. Canada’s pulp output is 15% of the world total.

Eastern Canada produces all types of paper, sawn wood, furniture, and other timber products. Main centers include Quebec, Montreal, Toronto, Ottawa, St. John, and Liverpool. Markets include northeastern USA, Britain, and Europe.

Problems Facing the Timber Industry in Canada

1. Frequent fires, controlled by monitoring and fire control teams.
2. Overexploitation leading to deforestation and loss of species; government promotes silviculture and education.
3. Dry summer weather encourages fires.

The government promotes research on new species, improved transport, and power sources to expand the industry.

Timber Industry in Sweden

Sweden has diverse land use, with 50% forest cover, especially in the north. About 3% of the population works in forestry and timber industry. Forests stretch from latitude 60°N to beyond the Arctic Circle, mostly coniferous with spruce as the most important species. Other conifers include Scots pine, fir, and larch. These are exploited for sawn wood, pulp, and paper. Deciduous trees like beech are felled in the south.

Timber is accessible due to many rivers and lakes used for floating logs to the Baltic coast and Lake Vänern. Rivers provide hydroelectric power for sawmills and pulp mills. Main lumbering districts lie between Angerman River and Lake Siljan. Sundsvall is a major center for sawmills and pulp mills.

Sweden and Finland produce less than 2% each of the world’s timber but have significant export surpluses. Timber yields are increased by drainage, fertilization, and commercial use of bark, stumps, and roots. Some timber is still imported.

Uses of Swedish Timber

1. Building materials: flooring, plywood, wallboard, doors, and window frames.
2. Wood pulp for paper manufacture; by-products include paint, varnishes, cosmetics, and ethyl alcohol (used as motor fuel blend).
3. Paper production in central Sweden at Orebro, Karlstad, Norrköping, and Trollhättan.
4. Fuel resources, as Sweden lacks coal for heating.
5. Manufacturing matches, mainly in Jonkoping.
6. Railway sleepers, telephone poles, and sawn timber; towns with timber industries include Härnösand, Sundsvall, Orebro, Karlstad, Norrköping, and Trollhättan.

Factors for Success in Timber Industry in Sweden

1. High accessibility due to many rivers used for cheap transport of logs.
2. Availability of heavy capital.
3. Strong government support, including silviculture.
4. Political stability encouraging production focus.
5. Good climate supporting forest growth; 50% forest cover ensures reliable supply.
6. Availability of water for cleaning, washing, and cooling machines.
7. Valuable species adapted to climate, thriving in winter and summer.
8. Population control reduces pressure on forests.
9. Reliable hydroelectric power supply.

Role of Timber Industry in Sweden’s Development

1. Contributes to export earnings; Sweden produces nearly 7% of world pulp and is a major exporter.
2. Reforestation programs encourage soil conservation.
3. Improved transport and communication, especially waterways.
4. Expansion of power supply stations stimulates other industries.
5. Development of forestry research units.
6. Employment generation reducing unemployment.
7. Economic stability promotes peace and political stability.

Problems Associated with Timber Industry in Sweden

1. Mechanization has led to layoffs as machines replace manual labor.
2. High demand for newsprint causes overexploitation; cutting rates are controlled and silviculture encouraged, including replacing native pines with faster-growing Canadian lodgepole pine.
3. Expansion of forest industries causes pollution: waterways polluted by chemicals, paper mills emit sulfur gases causing air pollution, contributing to global warming and acid rain.

Timber Industry in Gabon

Until the mid-1950s, Gabon was the leading timber exporter in tropical Africa. The country is covered by dense tropical rainforests (over 80% of land). Before mineral exploitation in the 1960s, the economy depended entirely on timber extraction.

Forests are spread across the country except in the south and southeast. Valuable softwood species include Ocoume, used for plywood and veneers; Gabon has a world monopoly on Ocoume. Hardwood species include ebony and mahogany. The Ogowe River is used for transporting logs to processing centers.

Timber production is mainly by large European companies and family producers (16%). There are about 17 plywood and timber mills along the Ogowe River. The largest mill and biggest plywood exporter is at Port Gentil. A new port, Port Owendo, north of Libreville, is also used for timber exports.

A railway links Port Owendo with interior forests, also used for uranium and manganese transport. A branch opens northern forests for iron ore mining. Timber and products account for 54% of Gabon’s exports. Agriculture is developing with cash crops like cocoa, coffee, and groundnuts. Mineral deposits diversify the economy.

Factors Leading to Timber Industry Development in Gabon

1. Presence of valuable species including ebony, Ocoume, and mahogany.
2. Cheap transport via Ogowe River and railway.
3. Capital from large foreign companies granted concessions.
4. Availability of skilled and unskilled labor.
5. Constant market demand for timber.
6. Government support for timber production.

Economic Importance of Forestry in Gabon

1. Forests contribute significant revenue and favorable trade balance.
2. Local employment generation.
3. Economic diversification including mining and agriculture.
4. Development of oil mining from export revenues.
5. Improved international relations through export trade.
6. Growth of towns and ports like Port Owendo.
7. Development of manufacturing industries from forestry capital.

Problems Facing Timber Industry in Gabon

1. Large-scale deforestation due to settlement, cultivation, and shifting agriculture; excessive cutting has exhausted eastern reserves.
2. Poor labor supply as many prefer mining activities.
3. Small home market for forest products.
4. Inadequate transport in areas far from Ogowe River.
5. Absence of pure tree stands.
6. Competition from major producers like Canada.
7. Disappearance of valuable species due to cutting and fires.
8. Transport problems due to heavy rains and waterlogging.
9. Price fluctuations favor temperate timber over tropical.
10. Dense, impenetrable forests hinder extraction and transport.
11. Poor local market due to low industrial base.
12. Rugged landscape complicates access and infrastructure development.
13. Frequent wars in Congo Basin disrupt timber extraction and cause labor unrest.
14. Competition from agriculture and mining encouraged by government.
15. Lack of education and low technology cause mismanagement and depletion.

Timber Industry in Brazil

Brazil is the only major commercial timber producer of significance in Latin America. Dense forests are found in the Amazon Basin (Amazonia), containing a vast variety of hardwoods including mahogany, rosewood, and balsam wood. Despite this, the greatest timber industry development is in the Parana pine forests in the south.

Factors for Timber Industry Development in Parana Pine Forest

1. Proximity to main industrial areas of southern Brazil, Paraguay, and northern Argentina.
2. Improved transport facilitating accessibility and resource ferrying.
3. Availability of cheap labor for lumbering.
4. Predominance of Parana pine (Araucaria pine), highly demanded softwood.

There are over 3000 sawmills in southern Brazil. Timber ranks second to meat in exports. Brazil accounts for 2% of world coniferous and 10% of broadleaved production. It also produces quebracho wood, whose bark is used for tannin extraction, important in leather manufacturing.

Problems Hindering Timber Industry Development in Amazon Basin

1. Deforestation due to shifting cultivation, ranches, settlement, fuel, and mining. Supported by government to address high population. Leads to leaching, soil erosion, fertility decline, and reduced arable land.
2. Diseases like malaria cause labor shortages; rural-urban migration and infant mortality worsen this.
3. Poor living conditions for lumber workers; inadequate power and water supplies.
4. Poor transport network; heavy rains and floods worsen accessibility; dense vegetation hinders water transport of logs.
5. Presence of wild and dangerous animals like snakes complicates exploitation.
6. Low capital due to poverty limits investment in advanced methods.
7. Lack of basic services like health, education, clean water, and electricity.

The Amazon Basin is threatened by high fuelwood demand and population explosion.

Timber Industry in Tanzania

Potential

Over half of Tanzania is miombo woodland; a small area is forest. Species include hardwoods like Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis), Mvule (Pericopsis angolensis), acacia, grevillea, mpera mwitu, mkarambati, mtunda, and softwoods like pencil cedar, pines, podo, black wattle, cypress, and eucalyptus. Miombo woodlands occupy central and western Tanzania, e.g., Tabora with the Tabora Misitu production mill. Mangrove forests are along the coast.

Uses of Timber in Tanzania

Timber and products are used for furniture, building, fuel, ornaments (ebony), honey and beeswax extraction, medicine (neem and baobab trees), and tannin production (mangrove trees).

Tanzania’s timber production policy emphasizes self-reliance in sawn timber and sustains small but efficient exports of high-quality timber, including logs and charcoal to Persian Gulf countries.

Research centers exist in Tabora, Songea, and Morogoro (Sokoine University of Agriculture).

Forest Plantation

Tanzania has over 74,304 hectares of forest plantations providing hardwood, softwood, or both. Softwood plantations include Buhindi, Matogoro, Rubare, and Rubya; hardwood plantations include Kwamkoro, Lunguza, Loliondo, and Mtibwa; mixed plantations include Rondo, Ruvu, Kawatere, Kiwira, Meru, North and West Kilimanjaro, Sao Hill (Mufindi), Shume, Magamba, Ukaguru, and Usa.

Development of Timber Industries

Timber industry is largely rural, run by individuals, groups, and government (to a small extent). Factors influencing development include tree availability, transport systems (Central and TAZARA railways), demand for hardwood products, paper demand, labor availability, and food supply.

Tanzania’s timber industry is less developed than Sweden’s due to:

1. Predominance of hardwood species while softwood is in high demand globally.
2. Poor transport network; roads impassable in rainy season; insufficient railways far from timber zones.
3. Low capital investment; reliance on borrowed capital.
4. Poor local market due to low income levels.
5. Focus on cash and food crops and mining reduces timber industry growth.
6. Low technology leading to poor-quality products.
7. Deforestation from fires, overcutting, tobacco curing, and overgrazing.
8. Food supply problems in timber-producing central regions; expensive food reduces efficiency.
9. Labor shortage due to rural-urban migration.
10. Tropical climate limits softwood plantations to highlands.

Efforts to Promote Forestry and Timber Industry in Tanzania

1. Forest conservation through tree planting, reforestation, afforestation, and protected reserves (e.g., Amani Nature Reserve). Fire control involves local communities and education campaigns. National tree planting campaigns have been promoted by government leaders.
2. Establishment of forest research centers under the National Forestry Research Master Plan (1991-1992), including a silvicultural research center in Lushoto.
3. Forestry training centers like Tengeru (Arusha) and Sokoine University of Agriculture; recruitment and in-service training of qualified staff.

Timber Industries

Most timber industries are located near forests to reduce transport costs, as logs are bulky and heavy. Furniture and paper industries may be located near markets after processing reduces bulk.

Examples of timber industries in Tanzania:

Furniture and Fixtures Industries

Many small-scale industries, some run by individuals at homesteads, others by groups (e.g., Keko and Manzese in Dar es Salaam).

Pulp and Paper Plants

Located in Dar es Salaam (Kibo Paper Mill) and Mufindi (Mufindi Pulp and Paper Mill). The paper industry is small and faces challenges such as poor management, low capital, drought-related water shortages, fires (especially at Sao Hills plantation), poor power supply (e.g., Mtera Dam), lack of skilled labor, and weak local markets preferring imported paper. Mufindi pulp and paper industry cost over Tshs. 250 million and produces various paper products.

Establishment of Mufindi Pulp & Paper Plant Stimulated by:

1. Government need for self-sufficiency in paper supply.
2. High demand for paper and books due to increased school enrollment.
3. Availability of Sao Hill forest plantation as raw material source.

– Plywood factories in Mwanza and Tanga.

– Tanning industries like the one in Kilimanjaro (Moshi).

Importance of Timber Industries in Tanzania

1. Providing employment.
2. Reducing timber importation, saving foreign currency.
3. Increasing environmental awareness and forest conservation.
4. Stimulating transport development into forests for resource exploitation.
5. Improving living standards through furniture production.
6. Enhancing learning environments by supplying paper, construction, and furniture.
7. Promoting tourism through traditional carvings.
8. Stimulating food crop markets due to worker demand.
9. Generating government revenue through local sales and exports.

Negative Impacts of Timber Industries in Tanzania

1. Encouraging deforestation as tree planting lags behind destruction.
2. Environmental pollution, especially from tanning industry affecting water.
3. High capital investment may divert funds from other projects.
4. Destruction of animal and bird habitats.

The Future of the Timber Industry in Tanzania

Depends on proper management of forests and woodlands, tree planting and care efforts, public awareness of conservation, population growth, financial resources, and cooperation between people and government.

Problems Facing Forestry Worldwide

1. Indiscriminate and wasteful felling of forests.
2. Man-made fires destroying forests.
3. Lightning causing fires or tree damage.
4. Increasing population causing excessive exploitation.
5. Agricultural activities putting pressure on land.
6. Political unrest causing random tree felling.
7. Diseases and pests causing large-scale tree destruction.
8. Industrial pollution stunting and destroying tree leaves near forests.

Solutions to Forestry Problems

1. Introducing afforestation and reforestation programs, such as national tree planting campaigns.
2. Spraying forests with pesticides and fungicides to combat diseases and pests.
3. Removing infected trees to prevent spread.
4. Improving firefighting techniques and equipment.
5. Training personnel in forest management.
6. Clearing around forests to prevent fires.
7. Legislation to prevent interference with forest areas.
8. Mass education on the importance of trees and conservation.
9. Reclaiming land from swamps and arid areas to reduce pressure on forests.
10. Researching tree characteristics to identify suitable species for specific areas.
11. Ensuring maximum utilization of harvested trees.