GEOGRAPHY O LEVEL(FORM TWO) NOTES – SUSTAINABLE MINING

SUSTAINABLE MINING

1. Meaning of Some Common Terms:

Mining

The process of obtaining or extracting minerals from the ground or the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials which form the package of economic interest to the miners.

Mines

Places where minerals are obtained or extracted.

Minerals

Substances with constant chemical composition which are formed naturally in the earth’s crust or the chemical composition of two or more elements within the earth’s crust.

2. Types of Mining Industry

• Surface mining: Extraction of minerals found close to the earth’s surface, e.g., corals and limestone.
• Underground mining: Extraction of minerals found deep in the ground, e.g., gold, diamond, etc.

3. Mineral Distribution in the World

Distribution of mining industry regions in the world: minerals are unevenly distributed. Mining activities are concentrated where mineral deposits occur. Some regions are rich in mineral resources, e.g., South Africa, while others are poor due to geological factors.

Mineral Distribution Worldwide

4. Methods of Mining

• Open cast mining: Used to extract minerals close to the earth’s surface. It involves removing the top layers of earth and overlying materials above the mineral areas. Earth-moving machines and bulldozers are used. Electric shovels dig up minerals and load them into trucks. It is the cheapest method.
  Example: Quarrying of limestone and corals at Kunduchi in DSM and Barubuni in Kenya.
• Alluvial mining: Takes place where minerals occur in alluvial deposits (materials deposited by water). It involves mixing alluvial deposits with water, rotating the mixture until light particles like sand, mud, and small stones are washed off, leaving mineral particles like gold, platinum, and diamonds behind.
• Underground (shaft) mining: Used for mining ore deep below the earth’s surface. A vertical shaft is dug to the mineral layer, then tunnels are dug horizontally to reach the minerals. Minerals are transported from tunnels to the base of the shaft and hoisted to the surface.

5. Types of Minerals and Distribution of Mining Regions in the World

• Metallic minerals / inorganic: Gold, iron, silver, copper, lead, nickel, cobalt, manganese, tin, aluminium, etc.
• Non-metallic minerals: Salt, potash, nitrate, sulphur, diamond, and graphite.
• Energy minerals: Coal, natural gas, and petroleum.

Coal

Found in the USA (Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Alabama), former USSR (Moscow, Donetsk coal basin, Kuanetsk coal basin), China, UK, South Africa, Zimbabwe (Wonkie), Zambia, Nigeria, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Morocco, Malawi, Sudan, and Tanzania (Ruhuhu basin, Ketewaka-Mchuchuma, Songwe-Kiwira).

Gold

Found in South Africa, Ghana, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, DRC, Uganda, and Kenya.

Salt Minerals

Found in Tanzania (coast, Uvinza in Kigoma) and China.

Copper

Found in Zambia, DRC, Uganda (Kilembe), Mauritania, Botswana, Chile, Canada, former USSR, and USA.

Natural Gas

Found in Tanzania (Songosongo Island in Kilwa), Nigeria, and Middle East.

Diamond

Found in Tanzania (Mwadui, Shinyanga), South Africa, DRC, Namibia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea.

Phosphate

Found in Tororo (Uganda) and Morocco (Khourigba, Youssonta, Ben Guerir within the Maseta).

Rouxite

Ore of aluminum, located in Guinea, Ghana, and Cameroon.

Iron Ore

Found in Germany, Sweden, USA, China, Brazil, Australia, France, UK, Liberia, Mauritania, Zimbabwe, Gabon, Algeria, Angola, and South Africa.

6. Contribution of Mining Industry to the Economy (Economic Importance)

1. Mining leads to the development of industries, e.g., steel cutting industry; coal has led to heavy industries in China, USA, and chemical industries.
2. Mining contributes to foreign currency earnings, e.g., copper in Zambia, gold in South Africa, oil in Nigeria, Libya, Algeria, Middle East, and Kuwait.
3. Mining provides employment opportunities, e.g., copper mining in Zambia and gold mining in South Africa.
4. Mining stimulates development of transport and communication, e.g., dense network of roads and railways in South Africa.
5. Encourages development of other economic sectors by generating capital, e.g., mining in China has led to investment in agricultural machinery.
6. Improves international relations through organizations like OPEC (Nigeria is a member).
7. Leads to development of towns and cities, e.g., Rand industrial conurbation in South Africa.
8. Leads to diversification of the economy, reducing dependence on a single income source.
9. Stimulates construction activities, e.g., supply of corrugated iron sheets for roofing.
10. Supplies energy from minerals like coal, petroleum, uranium, and natural gas.

7. Factors That Influence the Development of the Mining Sector

1. Availability of capital for investment, e.g., machinery purchase.
2. Nature of transport system: efficient transport promotes mining development.
3. Availability of labour: readily available labour supports mining growth.
4. Nature of market: good markets encourage mining growth.
5. Water availability: reliable water supply aids mining operations.
6. Nature of government policy: supportive policies promote mining.
7. Availability and value of deposits: large, valuable deposits encourage mining.

8. Problems Facing the Mining Industry in Africa and Other Parts of the World

1. Decline or exhaustion of mineral deposits due to overexploitation, e.g., coal and copper in Zambia, USA, and South Africa.
2. Poor number of skilled labour in developing countries, leading to poor exploration and low yield.
3. Lack of important mineral deposits in some countries, e.g., Japan and Norway; poor quality deposits in others, e.g., coal in Tanzania.
4. Poor capital availability in developing countries.
5. Poor transport systems, especially in developing countries, e.g., impassable roads in central Tanzania during wet seasons.
6. Competition for water supply among sectors, e.g., agriculture, mining, and manufacturing in South Africa.
7. Unreliable power supply affecting mining operations.
8. Poor working conditions leading to labour supply problems.
9. Political problems, e.g., civil wars causing labour unrest.
10. Problems of local markets and price fluctuations in the world market.
11. Food supply problems affecting mining development, e.g., in Zambia.

9. Problems Caused by the Mining Industry

1. Environmental problems: land degradation, soil and water pollution, deforestation.
2. High population pressure in mining centers causing social and economic problems: poor housing, unemployment, land shortage, food shortage.
3. Mining accidents causing deaths due to mine collapses.
4. Decline of other economic sectors, especially agriculture, due to labour migration to mining.
5. Conflicts and wars related to mineral resources, e.g., DRC conflicts, Gulf War due to oil.
6. Spread of diseases due to high population pressure in mining centers.

10. Effects of Mining on the Environment

1. Environmental pollution: water, air, soil, and noise pollution.
2. Land dereliction: abandonment of exhausted land, destroying landscape and leading to resource exhaustion.
3. Deforestation due to clearing vegetation for mining centers and settlements.
4. Reduction of land size and destruction of soil structure, hindering plant growth.
5. Loss of biodiversity due to disappearance of valuable plant species.
6. Greenhouse effect and global warming from energy minerals like coal and uranium producing gases such as carbon dioxide.
7. Flooded pits act as mosquito breeding grounds, increasing malaria spread.

11. Suggested Ways of Minimizing the Effects of Mining on the Environment

1. Improving extraction methods.
2. Reducing population pressure.
3. Reclaiming affected areas by planting trees.
4. Developing alternative energy sources instead of relying solely on energy minerals.
5. Establishing other economic activities like fishing, tourism, and market gardening.

CASE STUDY

Coal Mining in USA

USA is the leading producer of coal in the world, accounting for 24% of the world’s total production. Major coal fields include:

• The eastern province: Kentucky, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio.
• The interior: L. Hunan, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Oklahoma, Kansas.
• The gulf province: Texas, Alabama, Arkansas.

Factors That Have Stimulated the Development of Coal Mining

1. Presence of large deposits in many parts of the USA.
2. Advanced technology and use of machines.
3. Good market within and outside the USA due to iron and steel industries.
4. Well-developed transport system.
5. Availability of capital as the country is very rich.

Advantages of Coal Mining in the USA

1. Stimulated development of industries by providing power.
2. Led to development of transport systems, especially railways.
3. Created employment opportunities.
4. Stimulated development of the iron mining sector.

Disadvantages of Coal Mining

1. Creation of pits leading to ugly landscapes.
2. Environmental pollution: air, water, and noise pollution.
3. Challenges from environmentalists and alternative energy sources.
4. Reduction in arable land size.
5. Coal is non-renewable and gets exhausted.

Oil Production in the Middle East

Middle Eastern countries produce over of the world’s petroleum (oil). Major producers are Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, and U.A.E. Others include Oman, Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan.

Factors Leading to Oil Production in the Middle East

1. Very large deposits of oil.
2. Oil is easily obtained, mostly underground with a small percentage under the sea.
3. Oil fields are located near the Persian Gulf, facilitating easy export.
4. Oil drilling is the main economic activity.

Problems Facing Oil Extraction in the Middle East

1. Technological backwardness and lack of local capital, leading to involvement of international companies.
2. Labour unrest and conflicts, e.g., Gulf War, causing insecurity and disputes.
3. Poor transport from production areas to refining ports.
4. Reduction of oil reserves as a non-renewable resource.

Diamond Mining in South Africa

South Africa is the third largest diamond producer after DRC and former USSR. Others include Botswana, Ghana, and Sierra Leone. Diamond mining began in 1871 at Kimberly. Methods include placer (alluvial) and shaft mining.

Uses of diamond: making jewels, drilling bits, cutting instruments, diamond dust for polishing.

Diamond mining areas in South Africa:

• Kimberly, Cape Province
• Transvaal
• Port Musburg
• Orange Free State (Pretoria)

Importance of Diamond Mining in South Africa

1. Provides employment opportunities locally and internationally.
2. Development of social services.
3. Development of towns and cities, e.g., Pretoria.
4. Increases national income from sales.

Problems Facing Diamond Mining in South Africa

1. Price fluctuations causing low profits.
2. Labour unrest and racial tensions.
3. Food shortages due to overpopulation around mining centers.
4. Competition from other mining countries.

Iron Mining in Liberia

Liberia is rich in iron ore and is the leading producer in Africa. Mineral deposits are in Walogosi Mountain ranges, Bomi Hills, Bong Mountains, Nimber Mountains, and Bio Mountain ranges. Open cast mining is widely used.

Factors for the Development of Iron Mining in Liberia

1. Availability of high and low-grade iron ore.
2. Development of railway to Bomi Hills from Monrovia.
3. Labour availability due to high population in West Africa.
4. Government policies favor mining industries.

Advantages of Iron Mining in Liberia

1. Contributes to export earnings.
2. Supports development of industries, especially steel industry and Buchanan.
3. Encourages development of towns.
4. Stimulates social services like schools, roads, hospitals, shops, and police stations.
5. Improves port facilities such as Buchanan.
6. Provides market for locally produced foodstuffs.
7. Stimulates infrastructure development like railways.
8. Creates employment opportunities.

Problems Facing Iron Mining in Liberia

1. Competition from other countries like South Africa.
2. Exhaustion of deposits.
3. Poor transport from other West African countries.
4. Scattered deposits.
5. Civil war between government and rebels.

Iron Mining in Sweden

Sweden, part of Scandinavia, is endowed with iron minerals. Mining centers include Koruna, Gullivane, and Suapavaara.

Factors for the Development of Iron Mining in Sweden

1. Development of railway stimulates mining.
2. High market demand in Europe, especially Germany.
3. Power supply from hydroelectric power at Porjus.
4. Use of advanced technology.
5. Government support for industrial development.
6. Constant water supply for cooling and cleaning.
7. High government stability ensuring labour security.
8. Availability of high-grade iron deposits.

Importance of Iron Industry in Sweden

1. Creates employment opportunities.
2. Stimulates development of transport and communication.
3. Leads to development of heavy industries including steel, car, and shipbuilding (e.g., Volvo, Scania).
4. Promotes agriculture, forestry, and tourism.
5. Expands international trade.
6. Develops towns.
7. Improves social services.

Problems Facing Iron Industry in Sweden

1. Ice formation in winter at the Luck port complicates transportation; solved by linking to ice-free port at Narvik.
2. Exhaustion of some iron deposits due to excessive extraction.
3. Challenges from environmentalists opposing rapid industrial development.

Natural Gas Production in Tanzania

Natural gas deposits discovered at Songosongo in Kilwa in 1975. Full exploitation delayed due to:

1. Low technology for exploitation.
2. Low capital investment due to poverty.
3. Poor transport infrastructure.
4. Use of other energy sources like hydroelectric power and forest resources.

Advantages of Extracting Gas from Songosongo

1. Reduces dependence on imported gas.
2. Stimulates development of iron and steel industries using local iron deposits.
3. Promotes environmental conservation as natural gas is clean.
4. Creates employment opportunities, e.g., pipeline construction.
5. Improves living standards through efficient energy supply.
6. Stimulates exploitation of other resources like petroleum.
7. Generates foreign currency through exports.