HISTORY O LEVEL(FORM TWO) NOTES – AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD

AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD.

The contact between Africa and the Middle East and Far East dates back to early 200 BC. The early contacts were initially at the coast, but later some foreigners moved further into the interior of East Africa. Those early foreigners who visited Africa were people from Asia including Lebanese, Syrians, Indonesians, Persians, Arabs, and Chinese. Later, people from Europe began to visit Africa; these included Portuguese, British, Dutch, and French. The trade contact between the pre-colonial African societies, Middle East, and Far East began around the 8^th century AD. These early contacts were determined by the nature of African and Asian societies.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE AND FAR EAST.

Trade activities

Traders wanted to trade and control commercial activities along the African coast as Africa’s coastal environment attracted and favored trade activities of the Indian Ocean. In the 7^th and 8^th centuries, there was regular trading between Africa, China, Indonesia, Persia, and Arab states.

The southwest monsoon winds would blow the ships to the African coast between November and April, whereas the northeast monsoon winds between May and October would take them back to their countries.

GOODS EXCHANGED BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE AND FAR EAST.

1. Exploration of African coast.

   Visitors from the Middle East and Far East were interested in the accessibility of the coast and the availability of markets in the coastal areas. They also wanted to assess the volume of commodities in great demand such as gold, slaves, and animal skins.

   The exploration done in Africa was recorded in early records about the coast; it was documented by one of the Greek sailors’ books called Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography.

2. The need to search for new trading settlements.

   Early visitors aimed to establish trading settlements along the East African Coast and the Horn of Africa. During the 10^th and 11^th centuries, several Muslim merchants of Arab origin began to penetrate the Awash valley towards the highlands of Ethiopia.

3. The need to spread the Islamic religion.

   Some visitors came to spread Islam. The Islamic religion started to spread in Western Asia from the 7^th century mainly through holy wars known as JIHADS, which aimed at spreading Islam. Therefore, Muslim Arabs from the Middle and Far East visited the African coast with the aim of spreading Islam to the African people.

EFFECTS OF EARLY TRADING CONTACT.

A. ECONOMIC EFFECTS

1. Emergence of a rich class.

   Since African people engaged in trade activities and acquired enough profit, a class of rich merchants emerged among them. In East Africa, the rich included Chief Kivoi of Kamba and Nganyo of Giriama in Kenya, Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe of Nyamwezi in Tanzania.

2. Exposure of Africa to world economies.

   Africa was integrated into the world economy by supplying commodities in great demand by the outside world.

3. Exploitation of African resources.

   The contact involved exploitation of human resources by taking Africans as slaves, and commodities such as ivory, gold, and animal skins were taken away.

4. Decline of local industries.

   Consumers’ behavior changed from buying local commodities to buying foreign commodities such as cotton clothes and food utensils.

5. Loss of manpower.

   The slave trade decreased manpower because traders captured able-bodied people essential for production; the aged, weak, and children were left behind, unable to produce in large quantities.

6. Introduction of new crops.

   These crops were useful to Africans because they provided foodstuffs as well as cash crops such as coconut, palms, rice, millet, wheat, cloves, sugarcane, etc.

7. Introduction of money economy.

   In East African coastal cities, coins were minted and used as the medium of exchange; thus, currency replaced the barter trade system.

8. Introduction of new arts and crafts.

   By the 15^th century, various items were produced in Africa, and village communities transformed from simple to complex societies. Many towns developed due to arts and crafts; the art of writing, navigation, and money handling was also introduced.

   ecolebooks.com

B. SOCIAL EFFECTS.

1. Emergence of Swahili language and culture.
2. Rise and growth of Islamic culture.
3. Spread of Islamic religion (Qur’an and Islamic laws).
4. Growth of towns and cities such as Mombasa, Kilwa, Pemba, Sofala, and Mogadishu.
5. Emergence of mulattos due to intermarriage.
6. Rise of warfare and depopulation due to capturing of slaves.

THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE

The Portuguese invasion.

Trading between Africa and Asia was disturbed by the Portuguese invasion along the East African coast in the 16^th century.

The Portuguese attempted to capture and control Indian Ocean trade, which led to war between the Portuguese and the indigenous people of the East African coast. During this contact, the most important countries in the West were Spain and Portugal. These countries were included in trade through routes to India passing through Italy and the Muslim lands of the Middle East. Wars in the Muslim empire made trade difficult and more expensive.

The Portuguese, by finding sea routes, wanted to establish a trading empire in the East by controlling all trades in Europe. This was made possible by the invention of ships.

Prince Henry the Navigator, son of King John of Portugal, supported the voyages. They searched for routes which resulted in voyages by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487 and Vasco da Gama in 1498.

Vasco da Gama was the first Portuguese to reach East Africa.

In summary:

• Vasco da Gama reached Africa in 1498 (A.D).
• Bartholomew Diaz reached Africa in 1487.

ECONOMIC MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND THE PORTUGUESE.

1. The need to defeat Asian traders and rulers in their monopoly of Indian trade; European countries admired African commodities and needed contact with African people.
2. Controlling and exploiting gold.
3. Creating a Portuguese Empire in Africa to make Africa a producer.
4. Exploiting different African resources, e.g., gold, diamond.
5. Exploiting African resources by selling small items to Africans at high prices.

SOCIAL MOTIVES/AIMS

1. To spread Christianity.
2. To exploit Africa, especially East African coastal cities and states such as Kilwa, Mombasa, Bagamoyo, and Mogadishu.
3. To establish anti-Muslim alliances.
4. To search for Pastor John in Ethiopia.

THE PORTUGUESE EXPLOITATION RESULTED IN DISCOVERIES OF POTENTIAL AREAS.

The Portuguese established trade with societies in coastal areas. They created central points where ships could stop on the way to India. After establishing trade, the Portuguese obtained items such as ivory, gold, copper, and silver; they exchanged them with cloth, guns, gunpowder, etc.

By the 15^th century, the Portuguese succeeded in establishing their rule in East Africa. They built Fort Jesus in Mombasa, strengthening their military power and establishing effective control over the East African coastal areas.

1592 was the year Fort Jesus was built.

1698 was the year Fort Jesus was broken down.

1499 was the year Vasco da Gama returned to Portugal.

RESISTANCES AGAINST PORTUGUESE.

Sources of resistance included:

1) Displaced people joined the resistance, for example, the Zimba of Zambezi valley and Segeju of Somalia in Northeastern Africa. Constant attacks and resistance against Portuguese rule led to its decline and the capture of Fort Jesus of Mombasa in 1698.

2) Reaction from feudal lords and traders who wanted to protect their social and economic interests.

THE ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE.

a) Introduction of crops, especially cash crops in Africa such as sugarcane, yellow maize, cassava, rice, pineapples, potatoes, etc.

b) Decline of trade; trade between East Africa, Far East, and Middle East was interrupted by the Portuguese.

c) Change of major trade routes.

d) Exposure of Africa to the external world.

e) Construction of several forts, e.g., Fort Jesus.

f) Introduction of new arts to indigenous African people.

The forts built by the Portuguese included:

• Fort Jesus in 1592 in Mombasa.
• Fort at Kilwa.
• Sofala and Elmina Castle (present-day Ghana) built in 1482.

SOCIAL IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE

1. Decline of cities and states.
2. Growth of Swahili language.
3. Insecurity and loss of manpower.

Swahili adapted some new Portuguese words, e.g., Mvinyo from vinho, Meza, etc.

THE REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF PORTUGUESE.

1. Suffered from tropical diseases like malaria.
2. Unhealthy climate conditions of East African coast for the Portuguese.
3. Social, cultural, and religious differences, i.e., Muslims against Christians.
4. Loss of trade due to Portuguese taxes and restrictions.
5. Harsh treatments and punishments practiced by Portuguese leadership.
6. Role played by Oman to the coastal city people. The capture of Fort Jesus marked the end of Portuguese in East Africa around 1700.

THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE.

The Dutch or Boers came from Holland (Netherlands) and first settled at the Cape in Table Bay in April 1652 under the leadership of Jan Van Riebeek.

• Dutch farmers called themselves “BOERS”.
• When they settled at the Cape, they called themselves Afrikaners, meaning “whites of Africa,” who developed the language known as Afrikaans.
• Dutch had a company known as the United Dutch East India Company (UDEIC).
• The company traded with India and other Arabs in Asia.
• At the Cape, they grew vegetables, fruits, and kept animals such as cattle.
• They had barter trade with Khoikhoi exchanging tobacco and alcohol for cattle.

Reasons for Dutch settlement at the Cape

1. The Cape was a good place where ships could stop to be refueled.
2. The Cape had a good climate to support settlement of the whites (temperate and cool climate).
3. The Dutch wanted to produce vegetables and fruits for the ships sailing to India.
4. The Cape could provide fresh water for the sailors.
5. The Cape could be a base for projecting their ships on the Atlantic and Indian Ocean.
6. A center for caring for sick people.

THE EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE.

1. They took land from Khoikhoi and Xhosa.
2. They turned the Khoikhoi into slaves to work for them on farms.
3. Dutch raided cattle from the Khoikhoi.
4. Dutch settlement led to the introduction of apartheid, e.g., Khoikhoi could not get quality education, health services, and shelters like the Dutch.
5. Unequal exchange led to exploitation of South African resources.
6. Intermarriage led to mulatto population.
7. Political structure of the Khoikhoi was destroyed.

THE MAP SHOWS EXPANSION OF DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

THE BRITISH

The British first occupied South Africa in 1795 when they attacked and defeated the Boers at the Cape.

• There was a peace treaty between the Dutch and the British in 1802, and the Cape was given back to the Dutch in 1803. But in 1806, the British decided to re-occupy the Cape by defeating the Dutch.

The areas which made the British settle at the Cape were:

1. They wanted to protect their ships on the sea route to India.
2. It was based on protectionism which allowed the British to protect themselves against ships of enemies.
3. Area to get raw materials, market, and area for investment.
4. They wanted to control the trade route on sea water (India & Asia).
5. The Cape could easily link the British and Western Europe across the Atlantic Ocean.

Effects of the British administration at the Cape.

1. They abolished slavery introduced by Boers.
2. They imposed English language as the official medium of communication.
3. Khoikhoi continued to lose their land as the British took it for their settlements.
4. There was importation of manufactured goods from Europe.
5. They imposed new ways of life.
6. Introduction of circuit courts to settle disputes between Dutch and Khoikhoi.

African resistance against the settlement and expansion of the Boers and the British in South Africa.

The African resistance against the whites began during the 17^th century up to the 20^th century.

Examples of resistances were:

THE KAFFIR WARS OR WARS OF DISPOSSESSION.

1. These were a series of wars carried out by the Xhosa from 1779 vs Boers at the Great Fish River.

• The first three wars were in 1779, 1789, and 1803.
• The fourth (known as Ndhalambi) happened in 1812.
• The fifth (known as Makanda) in 1819.
• The sixth in 1834.
• The seventh in 1846.
• The eighth (Malenjin – 1850–1853).
• The last resistance by the Xhosa (Mlakaza was an advisor to one of the Xhosa).

2. The Battle of Vegkop on 19^th October 1836.

• Ndebele under Mzilikazi fought vs the Boers in the Orange Free State.

3. The Battle of the Blood River on 1^st February 1837.

• Zulu under Dingane fought against Boer settlement in Natal.

4. Anglo-Zulu War.

• Zulu under Cetshwayo fought strongly and defeated the British at the Battle of Islandlwana.
• But later the British suppressed the Zulu during the Battle of Ulundi on 4^th July 1879.

EAST AFRICA UNDER OMAN’S RULE 1840.

The Oman Arabs helped East Africans to defeat the Portuguese along the coast in 1698. Oman then became rulers. Therefore, people of East Africa were not free apart from defeating the Portuguese.

In 1741, Mombasa established her independence as a chiefdom under the Mazmi family; this was an order from the Arab family of Oman. The Mazmi family was conquered by Sultan Seyyid Said of Oman. From 1840 onwards, Sultan Seyyid Said became the master of the East African coast.

MOTIVES/AIMS OF OMAN ARABS IN EAST AFRICA.

1. To have clear control/monopoly of trade existing at the coast, especially Indian Ocean trade.
2. To control all the city-states along the coast.
3. To stop the spread of Christianity led by Portuguese and maintain Islamic culture.

WHY SULTAN SEYYID SAID SHIFTED HIS CAPITAL FROM MUSCAT OMAN TO ZANZIBAR

The following were the factors for Sultan Seyyid Said to shift his capital from Muscat Oman to Zanzibar in 1840:

1. Good climatic conditions supported the settlement of Arabs.
2. Fertile soil for agricultural purposes, especially clove and coconut products.
3. Deep natural harbour in Zanzibar for importation and exportation of goods.
4. Trade activities, e.g., controlling the Indian Ocean trade.
5. Abundant fresh water for irrigation and soil.
6. To avoid conflict in his home after killing his brother Iman Said.

IMPACTS OF OMAN ARABS (SULTAN) DOMINATION IN EAST AFRICA.

A: ECONOMIC IMPACTS.

1. Increase of slave trade.
2. Land alienation.
3. East African people were exposed to international trade.
4. Expansion of trade.
5. Introduction of new cash crops, e.g., coconut and cloves.
6. Establishment of feudalism where Africans became serfs and tenants.
7. Exploitation of African resources.

B: SOCIAL IMPACTS.

1. Death due to resistance against the Arabs.
2. Spread of Swahili language.
3. Addition of Arabic words into Swahili language.
4. Spread of Islamic religion.
5. Much suffering of people due to slavery activities.

THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA

Early inhabitants of South Africa:

• The Bushmen and Hottentots were the earliest inhabitants of South Africa.
• The few scattered Khoikhoi pastoralists and the San hunters were referred to as Hottentots.
• They formed Khoisan as they both spoke languages which contain clicking sounds.
• Bushmen are short and have yellow or brown skin color.
• Bushmen are probably the descendants of Stone Age men.

The Hottentots were similar to the Bushmen but taller and more advanced.

Production unit of Bushmen was based on hunting animals. The San depended on the Khoikhoi for cereals they exchanged for meat.

The Negroid Bantu began to arrive in South Africa from the 9^th century A.D. They were taller, stronger, and darker than Bushmen and Hottentots.

Bantu exercised arable farming, had iron working skills, and cattle domestication.

The Ngoni occupied the Eastern Coastal region from Zulu to the Cape Colony.

Bantu groups included the Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Ngoni, Tambu, and Xhosa communities. They cultivated a variety of crops such as sugarcane, melons, maize, and beans. The level of production they had reached enabled them to accumulate surplus and trade began to be conducted among them.

SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEABOARD.

Slave:

A person who is illegally owned and controlled by another person and is forced to work for them.

Slavery:

The act of owning and using slaves.

Slave trade:

The activity of buying and selling human beings like other commodities.

The main results of African contact with the external world through trade were:

• Rise of slave trade.
• Colonialism.

Slave trade in East Africa began after the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15^th century up to 1873 during the Sayyid Barghash treaty or free treaty.

REASONS FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE

1. The Oman Arabs who were ruling the East African coast at the time introduced clove plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba. These plantations required large numbers of laborers to tend to them.
2. There was also a high demand for slave labor for the French sugar plantations in Mauritius and Reunion Island. Initially, the French mostly depended on the area around present-day Mozambique for slaves, but by the 1770s the demand exceeded supply. Hence, the French came further north, to East Africa, in search of slaves.
3. Slaves were needed as porters. They ferried goods such as ivory and gold from the interior of Africa to the coast. This was important for the ivory trade, especially to the American, Indian, and British traders who took part in it.
4. Portuguese slave traders supplied slaves to the Portuguese coffee and sugar plantations in Brazil. In the first half of the 18^th century, the Portuguese expanded their plantations. As a result, their sources of slaves in West Africa and Mozambique became inadequate, so they came to East Africa.
5. Slaves were in great demand as domestic workers and soldiers in the Muslim nations of Arabia. The Quran forbids Muslims from enslaving other Muslims. Thus, the slaves had to come from non-Muslim regions such as the interior of East Africa. There were major slave markets in Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Pemba, Kilwa, Mikindani, and Mombasa.

EAST AFRICA SLAVE TRADE ROUTE

CHARACTERISTICS OF SLAVE TRADE.

There were characteristics which prevailed during the slave trade.

1. Severe human torture and transit.
2. Humiliation and dehumanization of the slaves.
3. Slaves were chained and forced to carry heavy loads like salt, ivory, and copper.
4. They were brutally whipped by their organizers.
5. Treated like animals; those unfit were killed or left to die on the way.

HOW SLAVE TRADE EMERGED

The trade reached its maximum stage after the growth in demand for labor in big plantations opened by capitalists. In the 2^nd half of the 18^th century, slave trade was boosted by the French demand for labor in Mauritius and Reunion Islands; these were their colonies where sugar plantations were established.

There were three stages in the development of slave trade in the Indian Ocean seaboard:

1. The first stage was dominated by the Portuguese who were shipping slaves from Mozambique to Brazil in the 18^th century.
2. The second was dominated by the Dutch from Holland and French who had opened coffee and sugar plantations in Mauritius and Reunion especially in 1770.
3. The third was due to the introduction of clove plantations in Zanzibar in the early 19^th century.

• The great demand for cloves in the world market led to the expansion of clove plantations which also increased the need for slaves.
• Slaves were needed for domestic and agricultural work in Arab countries in Asia. Due to these reasons, slave traders opened up slave trading centers (stations) such as Tabora, Ujiji, Kotakota, Chikole, and Unyanyembe.
• The expansion of slave trade led to the opening up of markets for slave activities. These markets in East Africa included Zanzibar, which was the biggest market; others were Kilwa, Bagamoyo, Mombasa, and Pemba.

HOW SLAVE TRADE WAS ORGANIZED IN INDIAN OCEAN SEABOARD.

The organization of slave trade in East Africa in the 19^th century depended on the following factors:

• Capital to buy ivory and slaves. At the beginning, Indian merchants called “Banyans” based in Zanzibar supplied capital; for example, cloth was used to buy ivory and slaves.
• Organization of caravans. Famous traders who organized caravans were Tippu Tippu between the East coast and present-day Congo Kinshasa, Mlozi in Belgian Congo, Rumaliza in Ujiji Kigoma, and Msiri in present-day Zambia.
• Involvement of local rulers in the slave and ivory trade. Nyungu ya Mawe, Isike, and Mirambo among the Nyamwezi, Kabaka of Uganda, Mkwawa of Wahehe, Machemba of Yao.

COMMODITIES EXCHANGED

• From interior to the coast – ivory, slaves, animal skins, minerals.
• From the coast to the interior – caravans brought clothes, salt, wine, glassware, beads, and ornaments.

HOW SLAVES WERE OBTAINED (TECHNIQUES USED TO OBTAIN SLAVES)

Slaves were obtained through various ways:

1. Raiding villages and capturing people.
2. Selling prisoners of war obtained from local civil wars.
3. Selling criminals.
4. Selling domestic slaves.
5. Laying ambushes.
6. Use of trickery and false pretense.

IMPACTS OF SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEABOARD.

SOCIAL EFFECTS

1. Depopulation; many people were taken to work as slaves and others died on the way.
2. Insecurity and fear among the people.
3. Development of inter-state wars.
4. Human torture and suffering.
5. Hunger due to lack of food in areas where slave trade operated.

ECONOMIC EFFECTS

1. Killing of economic activities. Agriculture, pastoralism, and industries were killed due to lack of manpower.
2. Technological stagnation; no innovation was made as all able-bodied people were taken as slaves; only children and old ones were left behind.
3. Underdevelopment of East Africa; slave trade increased dependence on European capitalist countries. Generally, slave trade had negative effects in East Africa and created many problems.

THE CARAVAN ROUTES.

There were three main caravan routes during East Africa slave trade.

THE TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE

• The triangular trade (TATT) was intercontinental trade conducted by Europeans in relation with Africans and Americans across the Atlantic Ocean from the 16^th to 18^th century.
• The Trans-Atlantic triangular trade originated from the discovery made by Christopher Columbus who was born in 1451 in Genoa, after the discovery of the New World (America) in 1492.
• The Portuguese were the first foreigners to capture slaves at the coast of West Africa. In 1441, Alitam Goncalvez, a Portuguese, captured a man and a woman and sent them as gifts to the King of Portugal (Prince Henry the Navigator before his death in 1440).

COMMODITIES OF EXCHANGE

The major commodities of exchange in the triangular trade were:

AFRICA – Exported slaves, gold, ivories, and animal skins.

AMERICA – Exported sugar, cotton, tobacco, gold, and silver.

EUROPE – Supplied manufactured goods such as clothes, gunpowder, glassware, sugar, and tobacco.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE.

1. The discovery of the New World.

After the discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus in 1492, Britain colonized modern-day United States of America (USA), the French occupied Canada, Portugal colonized Brazil, and Spain colonized Latin America.

The Europeans found the natives (Red Indians) unfit for labor in the mines and plantations because they were weak, affected by smallpox, and lived a nomadic life.

2. Advancement in marine technology between the 15^th and 17^th centuries. European nations developed marine technology as they had ships which could carry bulky cargo for a long distance.
3. Trade in gold from West Africa; slave labor was used in the East and then it was sent overseas.
4. Settlement of Portuguese in Sao Tome and Principe islands where they opened sugar plantations.

RESULTS OF TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

ECONOMIC RESULTS.

1. Decline of production; this led people not to engage in production especially in agriculture and mining activities due to slave trade.
2. Decrease of manpower; most of the energetic people were captured and taken as slaves.
3. Technological stagnation.
4. Introduction of new crops, e.g., bananas, beans, cassava, and maize.
5. Development of forts, e.g., Lagos, Port Novo, and Dakar.
6. Emergence of local wealthy classes; African local rulers participated in slave trade and became rich, e.g., Asantehene of Asante.
7. Integration of Africa into the world capitalist economy, hence leading to colonization of the African continent.
8. Introduction of legitimate trade after abolition of slave trade; this was trade in natural products such as rubber, cotton, palm oil, and groundnuts.

SOCIAL EFFECTS

1. Fear and insecurity.
2. Emergence of mulattos in West Africa.
3. Retardation of African culture.
4. Families were broken up.
5. Establishment of artificial boundaries and treaties.
6. Opening up the interior of Africa where they searched for resources.
7. Facilitation of the destruction of African culture.