GENERAL STUDIES FROM 5 – (2)

2. Municipal Council

Municipalities are towns with a population of over 80,000 residents each.

Members of the municipal council are the same as those of the town council. The council is headed by a mayor who is assisted by a deputy mayor. Both the mayor and the deputy mayor are elected by members from amongst the elected councilors. Like a town council, the municipal council has a director who is the chief executive and serves as Secretary to the council.

3. Town Council

The Town council is composed of councilors elected from each ward within the town, Members of Parliament representing the constituencies within the town, and five members appointed by the Minister responsible for Local Government. The women appointed to the council number not less than one third of the combined Ward representatives and Members of Parliament.

4. District Council

A district council is an administrative area corresponding to that of government administration. The district council is composed of the following:

1. Elected members or councilors, one from each ward in the district
2. Three members appointed by the minister responsible for local government
3. The member of parliament or members of parliament from the constituencies within the areas of the district
4. Chairperson of village council elected by the district council. Their number is directed not to exceed one-third of the total number of elected councilors.

A district council is headed by a chairperson who is assisted by a Vice-chairperson. These two are elected by councilors among themselves. The chief executive of the council is the District Executive Director (DED). This is a government employee, not a political official.

Responsibilities of Councilors

Some of the functions of councilors include the following:

1. To review periodically progress and performance of development programmes.
2. To direct and control the affairs of their local government authorities.
3. To make decisions on the objectives of their authorities and on the plan to attain them. For instance, approval of by-laws and annual budget.

Function of Local Government Directors

The director is both the chief executive of the Council and the accounting officer. Therefore:

1. The director performs the day-to-day administration of the services carried out by the local government authority.
2. The director provides the necessary advice to enable councilors to set objectives and decide on the means of attaining them.
3. The directors identify and choose particular problems, and make necessary decisions taking into account the views of councilors.

5. The Ward

The Minister responsible for Local Government has been mandated to sub-divide the area of every District, Town, Municipality or City Council into Wards, Neighborhoods (Mitaa) in urban areas or Villages in rural areas, hamlets or vitongoji.

The number and size of the Ward varies from council to council depending on population densities, size of the council area, and geographical characteristics of the District, town, Municipality or city in question. The Ward is an administrative and service delivery unit for coordinating activities of villages and Neighborhoods within the Ward. There is no elected Council at the Ward level. Instead, each Ward has a Ward Development Committee, which comprises of:

1. A Councilor representing the Ward in the District or urban Council who is the Chairperson of the Committee
2. Chairperson of all Villages within the Ward
3. Chairpersons of Neighborhoods in the case of Urban Wards
4. Women Councilors who occupy special seats reserved for women in the relevant District or Urban Authority resident in the Ward
5. Invited members who must include persons from Non-Government Organizations and other Civic Groups involved in the promotion and development of the Ward (but without voting rights)

The function of the Ward Development Committee include:

1. Promotion, establishment and development of cooperative enterprises and activities within the Ward.
2. Initiation and formulation of any task, venture or enterprise designed to ensure the welfare and well-being of Ward residents.
3. Supervision and coordination of the implementation of Council projects and programmes.
4. Planning and coordination of activities of, and rendering assistance and advice to the residents of the Ward engaged in any activity or industry of any kind.
5. Formulation and submission to the Village councils or to the District/urban councils of proposals for the making of by-laws in relation to the affairs of the Ward.
6. Monitoring revenue collection.
7. Initiating and promoting participatory development in the Ward.
8. Supervision of all funds established and entrusted in the Ward.
9. Managing disaster and environment related activities.
10. Promotion of gender issues.

Where any scheme or programme for the development of the Ward has been approved by the council Chief Executive or by the Village councils concerned, the Ward development committee is required to inform all persons within the Ward area about the scheme or programme and the date, time or place upon which the Ward residents will report in order to participate in its implementation.

The funds and resources of the Ward development committee consist of such sums as may be determined and appropriated by the district or urban council.

6. The Neighbourhood (Mtaa)

In urban areas, the lowest unit of government is the “Mtaa” or Neighbourhood. Section 14(3) of the Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act No. 8 of 1982 stipulates that the area of an urban Ward shall be divided into Neighbourhoods (“Mitaa”) consisting of a number of households, which the urban authority may determine. Every Neighbourhood (Mtaa) has a chairperson who is elected by a Neighbourhood (Mtaa) electoral meeting of all adult members of the Neighbourhood (Mtaa) and who may be removed from office by the decision of a simple majority of such members subject to procedures prescribed by the Minister responsible for Local Government.

The “Mtaa” Chairperson is required to convene a meeting of Mtaa Assembly at least once every two months and to submit the minutes of the meeting to the Ward Development Committee.

Every “Mtaa” has a Mtaa committee of not more than six members (of whom at least two should be women) elected from amongst residents of the “Mtaa” in accordance with procedures as may be prescribed by the Minister responsible for Local Government.

The functions of the Mtaa committee are:

1. To implement Council Policies.
2. To advise the Council on matters relating to development plans and activities of the Mtaa.
3. To advise the Ward Development Committee on matters relating to peace and security in the Mtaa.
4. To keep proper records of residents of the Mtaa and other particulars relating to the development of the Mtaa in general.
5. To do such other things as may be conferred upon it by the Ward Development Committee.

The “Mtaa” chairperson, apart from chairing “Mtaa” Assembly and “Mtaa” committee meetings, is required:

1. To supervise peace and security activities in the “Mtaa”.
2. To arbitrate on minor conflicts amongst “Mtaa” residents which do not warrant referral to the Ward Tribunal nor the courts.
3. To sensitize “Mtaa” residents to pay Council taxes.
4. To ensure general cleanliness in the “Mtaa”.
5. To cooperate with the Urban council in abatement of nuisances.
6. To follow up and ensure that every school-going age child gets a place and attends classes as required.
7. To sensitize “Mtaa” residents to participate in developmental activities through self-help.
8. To perform such other functions as may be determined by the Urban council.

7. The Village

The Registrar of Villages in the Ministry responsible for Local Government may register an area as a Village where he/she is satisfied that not less than 250 homesteads have settled and made their homes within any area of mainland Tanzania, and that boundaries of that area can be particularly defined. The Minister responsible for Local Government may authorize two or more areas to be registered as a single Village and also authorize the registration of an area as a Village notwithstanding that there are less than the prescribed number of households within the area.

Two major organs have been created at village level. The Village Assembly is composed of all adult persons ordinarily resident in the village. The Village Council comprises of not less than fifteen but not more than twenty-five members (of whom women make at least 25%) elected every 5 years by the Village Assembly. The election of the Village Council is conducted in accordance with procedures prescribed by the Minister responsible for Local Government matters. No person can be elected as a member of the Village Council unless:

1. He/she has attained the apparent age of 21 years.
2. He/she is a member of a household within the village and is ordinarily resident in the village.
3. He/she is able to read and write in Kiswahili or English.
4. He/she has a lawful means of livelihood.

The Village Council may, by resolution supported by two thirds of the members, remove the chairperson from office.

A Village Assembly is the supreme authority on all matters of general policy making in relation to the affairs of the village, and as such it is responsible for the election of the Village Council and its removal from office. The Village Assembly meets once every three months and may hold an extraordinary meeting whenever there is an urgent issue to be resolved. The functions of the Village Assembly are as follows:

1. To receive and deliberate on implementation reports submitted by the Village Council.
2. To receive and deliberate on revenue and expenditure reports since the last meeting.
3. To receive and deliberate on by-laws proposed by the Village Council.
4. To deliberate on reports on applications for land as submitted and decided upon by the Village Council.
5. To receive and take note of directives from higher governance levels.

The Village Council is the organ vested with all executive (government) power in respect of all affairs and business of the village. Specifically, the Village Council is required:

1. To oversee security and peace activities in the Village.
2. To do all such things as are necessary or expedient for the economic and social development of the village.
3. To initiate and undertake any tasks, venture or enterprise designed to ensure the welfare and well-being of the residents of the Village.
4. To receive and deliberate issues raised at meetings of Vitongoji (sub-village) Assemblies.
5. To plan and coordinate the activities of and render assistance and advice to the residents of the village engaged in agricultural, horticultural, forestry or other activity or industry of any kind.
6. To encourage residents of the village in undertaking and participating in communal enterprises.
7. To participate by way of partnership or any other way, in economic enterprises with other Village councils.

The Village Council is required to meet once every month but may hold an emergency meeting anytime if a need so arises.

8. The Hamlet (Kitongoji)

The lowest Local Government organ in rural and peri-urban areas is the Hamlet or “Kitongoji”, which forms part of a registered Village. The law requires that the area of a Village shall be divided into not more than five “Vitongoji” consisting of such number of households or of such geographical areas as may be determined by the Village Council and approved by the District Council. Every “Kitongoji” has a chairperson who is elected by the electoral college consisting of all the adult members of the “Kitongoji” in accordance with election procedures prescribed by the Minister responsible for Local Government and who may be removed from office by the decision of a simple majority of such members.

The chairperson of a “Kitongoji” may appoint a Committee of three persons from amongst the residents of the “Kitongoji” to advise on issues beneficial to the “Kitongoji” and may also appoint one of the residents to act as Secretary.

The “Kitongoji” Chairperson’s specific functions and responsibilities are:

1. To convene monthly meetings of all “Kitongoji” residents to discuss and resolve issues relating to peace, security and development of the “Kitongoji”.
2. To maintain a register of all “Kitongoji” residents and other particulars relating to the general development of the “Kitongoji” including a record of births and deaths.
3. To ensure peace and security of residents and their property.
4. To arbitrate on minor conflicts which need not be referred to the Ward Tribunal or to the courts.
5. To mobilize residents to pay required taxes and dues as determined by the District and Village Councils.
6. To deal with health and environmental issues in the Kitongoji and ensure proper implementation of National, regional and District campaigns against communicable diseases.
7. To ensure proper protection of the environment and water sources.
8. To follow up and ensure that all school-going children secure a place and attend school as required.
9. To sensitize residents to participate in adult literacy classes.
10. To sensitize residents to participate in development activities through self-help.
11. To represent the Kitongoji in the Village Council.

Diagram:

LOCAL GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE IN TANZANIA

Forms of Local Government in Tanzania

In Tanzania, forms of local government include:

1. Village government or Neighbourhood (Mtaa) government in rural or urban settings respectively. A village/Neighbourhood government is the smallest local government unit. It is made up of the village/Mtaa Assembly which is headed by a village/Mtaa chairperson and the village/Mtaa council which is led by the Village/Mtaa Executive Officer (VEO/MEO). The adult population in the village forms the village assembly. The village council is the executive arm of the village assembly. It has powers to oversee the day-to-day activities of the village. A village government discharges its functions through its standing committees which are the Finance, Economic and Planning Committee; the Defence and Security Committee; and the Social Service Committee.
2. District councils. The district councils are constituted by:
   1. Elected members or councilors, one from each ward in the district.
   2. Three members appointed by the minister responsible for local government.
   3. The Member of Parliament or members of parliament from the constituencies within the areas of the district.
   4. Chairperson of the village council elected by the district council. Their number does not exceed one-third of the total members.

   A district council is headed by a chairperson who is assisted by a vice chairperson. The Chief Executive of the council is the District Executive Director (DED) who is a government employee.

3. Urban authorities (Town council, Municipal councils and City councils). These councils are headed by the Mayor and the deputy mayor who are elected from among the elected councilors. There are also Town, Municipal and City Directors. A Town, Municipal or City Director is the Chief Executive and serves as Secretary to his or her respective council.

Functions of Local Government

Local governments are expected to perform various functions and duties which can be grouped into two major categories: mandatory and permissive functions and duties.

Mandatory functions and duties of local government

Mandatory duties of a local government are those functions and duties which are to be performed by a local government without question as required by the law of the country. The central government requires local governments to perform such duties and the local governments have no choice except to discharge such duties as required.

1. Maintenance of peace, order, and good governance.
2. Promotion of economic welfare and social well-being of all persons.
3. To further the social and economic development of its area of jurisdiction in accordance with the national policy and plans for rural and urban development.
4. Formulation, coordination and supervision of the implementation of all plans for economic, industrial and social development in the area of jurisdiction.
5. Monitoring and controlling the performance of the duties and functions of the council and its officers and staff.
6. Ensuring the collection and utilization of the revenues of the council.
7. Making by-laws for the implementation of national and local policies.
8. Ensuring, regulating and coordinating development plans, projects and programs of village and township authorities within their areas of jurisdiction.
9. Regulating and monitoring the collection and utilization of revenue of village council and township authorities.

Permissive functions

Permissive functions are those which the local government may perform depending upon needs and availability of financial resources. Such functions include:

1. Control or prescription of methods of husbandry on agricultural land.
2. Establishment, maintenance, operation and control of drainage and sewerage works.
3. Building, equipping and letting shops and dwelling houses.
4. Charging fees for services and licenses. For instance, taxes on goods and services such as crop cess, forest produce cess, hunting license, fees, business and professional license, etc.
5. Building and maintaining health centers and primary as well as secondary schools.

The role of local government in enhancing democracy in Tanzania

The following are the ways through which the local government enhances democracy in the country:

1. Local governments give chance to many people to participate in elections by making democratic decisions through casting votes on the candidates they want. For example, they choose village chairpersons, councilors, etc.
2. Local governments bring about greater democratic participation of citizens through holding referenda, recalls, initiatives and citizen assemblies for collective decision making.
3. Local governments provide room for involving people in planning and implementation of development programmes. The purpose of having Local Government Authorities, in the words of article 146(1) of the Constitution, is “to transfer authority to the people”. Local Government authorities have been given power to participate and to involve the people in the planning and implementation of development programmes within their respective areas and generally throughout the country.
4. Local government ensures that people participate in the affairs of their government in accordance with the provisions of the constitution. For example, the village assembly meets once every three months and may hold an extraordinary meeting whenever there is an urgent issue to be resolved.
5. Local government enables the enacting of by-laws which are more relevant and which seek to realize the interest of citizens within their locality. For example, the Ward Development Committee formulates and submits to the village council and the District/urban councils proposals for the making of by-laws in relation to the affairs of the Ward.
6. Local Government monitors and controls the performance of duties and functions of the council and its officers and staff. For instance, the Ward Development Committee supervises and coordinates the implementation of Council projects and programmes.
7. Local government sensitizes residents to participate in development activities through self-help and mobilizes residents to pay required taxes and dues as determined by the District and village council.

The role and responsibilities of individual citizens in a democratic society

1. Active participation in community development: A citizen ought to be active in activities such as agricultural activities and other physical works.
2. Participation in prevention of crime and reporting: In a democratic society, the process of preventing crime and reporting crime is not only the function of the police and other forces but also the duty of every citizen. For that case, a citizen has the role and responsibility of providing great cooperation to the forces such as police in order to deal effectively with any social crime in the society.
3. Timely payment of taxes: Paying tax and other duties is the responsibility and role of a citizen in a democratic society. He/she has to be punctual in fulfilling this without being forced.
4. Respect of the law and the constitution: The constitution of any country has the function of directing the country’s leaders how to run the country. It is the role and responsibility of every citizen to respect the constitution by not violating the rules which have been stipulated within it.
5. To respect others’ rights: The role and responsibility of a citizen is to respect human rights. These are right to life, right to own property, freedom of assembly and of press, etc.
6. To combat corruption: Every citizen in a democratic society has the role and responsibility of fighting against corruption. Corruption is a problem in society since it leads to laziness and delays in provision of services. Corruption also weakens human rights because one can be considered to be right if he/she has a lot of money and has given bribes.
7. Care of the environment, public property and services: Every citizen is responsible to protect and conserve the environment by using applicable methods such as afforestation and reforestation. Also, a citizen has the responsibility of caring property like schools, buildings, roads, national parks and other services constructed by the government for public services.
8. Participating in political matters either directly or indirectly: For example, standing in political meetings and joining political organizations.
9. To have good conduct and behavior: Every citizen has the responsibility of examining his/her behavior in the country he or she resides. If it seems to be immoral, he/she should have a moral obligation to refrain from it. For example, bad behavior such as theft, homosexuality, prostitution, use of marijuana and other social crimes.
10. To exercise honesty and civility: The role of a citizen in a democratic society is to be faithful for anything which is planned for development of a community.
11. To promote peace and harmony: It is the role and responsibility of every citizen to ensure that unity and solidarity prevail. So every citizen has a duty to ensure that any conflict that arises is settled.

The role and responsibilities of civil society organizations in a democratic society

Civil society organizations (CSOs) are non-profit non-governmental organizations that have a presence in public life expressing the interests and values of their members and others based on cultural, ethnic and political considerations e.g. Haki Elimu, TGNP (Tanzania Gender Networking Programme), MWDo (Maasai Women Development Organization), Enviro Care (Environment, Human Rights, Care and Gender Organization), etc.

The following are the roles and responsibilities of strong civil society organizations in democratic society:

1. Supporting policy formation, implementation and evaluation through practical advice. For example, the Tanzania Gender Budget Initiative (GBI) is organized by Feminist activities (FemAct) led by TGNP and it exemplifies effort by civil society organizations to engage more directly in the policy making process at all levels.
2. Regulating and monitoring state performance and behavior of public officials. Active society organizations scrutinize state performance and ethical behavior of public officials to ensure that there is no misuse of power for personal interests.
3. To enable citizens to identify their values, beliefs and democratic practices. Civil society organizations mobilize constituencies especially the vulnerable and marginalized to participate fully in public affairs.
4. Civil society organizations foster development work of citizens and improve well-being of their own community.
5. Civil society organizations act as watchdogs to see what the government does. For example, checking the way government respects human rights.
6. Civil society organizations act as a link between donors and aid beneficiaries. Since civil society organizations act as a bridge between the state and citizens, donors tend to use these organizations as they are able to fulfill the needs of a given society. For example, in Tanzania aid may be given through the Civil Society Foundation.

Democratic process and democratic elections

Democratization process involves political reforms to ensure that the principles of democracy are achieved. One major indicator of democratic reforms is to have democratic elections.

Elections

An election is the process of choosing/selecting a person by vote for a given position especially in political office.

Democratic elections are elections held in an atmosphere in which participants are tolerant or willing to listen to the political views of their opponents and when the electoral law and rules are fair and equal for all contestants.

Factors which make elections democratic (free and fair)

For an election to be declared democratic (free and fair), the following conditions should be observed:

1. A well-developed system of many political parties from which people can choose those they wish to be their representatives.
2. Equal opportunities to all parties: Candidates and political parties that are contesting in the election should be treated equally.
3. Widely accepted rules of the game within which the struggle for power takes place.
4. Presence of an independent and impartial electoral body. This is required to be honest, competent and non-partisan.
5. The existence of an independent judiciary to interpret the electoral law.
6. Free and fair campaigns: Campaigns are political meetings where candidates present their views, promises and programmes and voters ask questions. These views can be read or heard from the mass media e.g. radios, TVs, newspapers, posters, flyers and pamphlets. In a democratic state, the government allows freedom of expression; candidates, parties and voters are not intimidated, threatened, bribed or prevented from voting.
7. The campaigns should focus on political and socio-economic issues like poor education, declining economy, poor health services, bad infrastructure, low crop prices of agricultural products, excessive taxes, and these problems and not going astray from them.
8. Equal access to the mass media for all political parties. The mass media which include radio, television, posters, newspapers, leaflets, banners, stickers and internet influence the way people vote. In democratic elections all candidates and parties should have equal access to the media. The existing government or the party in power should not dominate the media or suppress the freedom of the press.
9. Abiding by agreed code of conduct. A code of conduct for democratic elections is a set of rules and regulations that are set by the electoral commission and have to be adhered to by all political parties as well as the candidates who are contesting for various political positions.

The Tanzania code of conduct in democratic elections

1. All parties shall have access to all potential voters. No party shall have exclusive control of any area.
2. There shall be no use of inflammatory or derogatory language during campaigns.
3. There shall be no use of intimidation in any form including death threats and arson.
4. There shall be no interference or disruption at public meetings during campaigns.
5. All parties shall commit themselves to a secret ballot and respect voters’ right to keep their votes secret.
6. There shall be a ban on carrying and displaying of all weapons during election campaigns and on the voting day.
7. The security forces shall not take sides or interfere with the election process.
8. Election campaigns shall be conducted daily; the parties and voters shall be tolerant of each other’s point of view.
9. There shall be no tampering with or interference with voters’ ballot papers during the election.
10. All political parties shall undertake to accept the results of the election if the electoral process is declared free and fair.

Principles of democratic elections

There are four basic principles of democratic elections:

1. Universal voting/universal suffrage: This is a condition which allows all citizens who have legally met voting qualifications to vote and be voted for regardless of their sex, race, language, income, profession, education, religion or political beliefs.
2. Equality of votes: When an election is democratic, each vote carries one vote.
3. Secret ballot: Secret ballot means voting secretly. This condition requires that the voting act should not be known by another person; casting of the votes must be in secret.
4. Direct elections: This is when the voters decide for themselves who their leaders will be. That action of casting a vote against or for a candidate means that the voters are directly electing their leaders.

Free and fair election in Tanzania

The organ responsible for ensuring that elections are held in a free and fair manner is the National Electoral Commission (NEC) in mainland Tanzania or Zanzibar Electoral Commission (ZEC) for the Zanzibar Isles. This national electoral commission is established by parliamentary act but its top officials are appointed by the president of the United Republic of Tanzania and it is expected to carry out its activities without interference and impartially.

Elections are said to be free in the sense that anyone qualifying to vote is allowed to do so without external influence or interference. Fair election is therefore unlawful for any candidate, party or candidate to use Government facilities or resources for the purpose of campaigning. It is again very necessary to note that all candidates are to be given equal access to state-owned media, secured areas for public rallies and political speech.

The following are actions that have been taken to ensure fair and free election in Tanzania

1. Passing an electoral law: This was passed by the parliament to facilitate lawful administration of the National Electoral Commission. The law stipulates detailed instructions and gives the National Electoral Commission (NEC) the power to: design, print and control the use of ballot papers; create polling stations; promote civic education on voting procedures; accredit any non-partisan individual or group or an institution or an association to carry out voter education; demarcate constituencies; determine a polling day; keep and maintain voters register; ensure that transparent vote counting is exercised; and announce the election results.
2. Provision of election monitors and observers: These are experts responsible for ensuring equal fairness and justice to candidates and parties. This includes NGOs e.g. TEMCO (Tanzania Election Monitoring Council), LHRC (Legal and Human Rights Center), TEC (Tanzania Episcopal Conference), CCT (Christian Council of Tanzania).
3. Allowing international election observers whose functions are to oversee that election proceedings are in order and that those who exercise maintain a free and fair approach. For example, in the 1995, 2000, 2005, and 2010 multiparty general elections in Tanzania, international observers were invited from the European Union, United Nations, African Union, Southern Africa Development Cooperation and East Africa.

ELECTION PROCEDURES:

The election process has to undergo a number of stages, including:

1. Registration of voters: People who are allowed to vote are those who have sound mind, are citizens of Tanzania and have the age of 18 years and above. Registration of voters is done in special areas prepared by the electoral commission. Registration of voters is very important because it helps to know the number of voters. It also helps to understand who has qualifications of being a voter.
2. Candidate selection: Every party in Tanzania has its own way of choosing its candidates to contest for councilors, members of parliament and presidential positions. Every party is supposed to identify candidates who are likely to win based on, for instance, personal ability, integrity, personality, eloquence and above all with no criminal record.
3. Organization and management of campaigns: All party candidates are given equal opportunities to address the public and present themselves to the voters. All electoral campaigns should be done orderly in line with laid out norms and procedures.
4. Voting: After campaigns, people who are qualified as registered voters go to the parties they like. The voting is done through secret ballot, each party being represented at the polling station.
5. Vote counting: Counting of the votes follows immediately after completion of the voting and each polling station reveals its results to the public. Those who have the right to participate in the counting process are the representatives of the candidate or the political party.
6. Announcing the results: The National Electoral Commission is the only body to announce the general results of elections. It is responsible to declare winners of all posts starting with those members of parliament and the president.

Qualification of candidates contesting for various posts in Tanzania

A political candidate is any person who is qualified for the post he or she is contesting and he or she has been appointed by the political party to contest for that post.

a) A candidate for the councilor post

A candidate for the councilor post should have the following qualifications:

1. He/she has to be a Tanzanian citizen.
2. He/she has reached the age of 21 years and above.
3. He/she has to master reading and writing Kiswahili or English language.
4. He/she has to be a member of a registered political party and be appointed by the party to be a councilor candidate.
5. He/she has to have a credible source of income which will enable him or her to live a decent life.
6. He/she has to be a resident of the ward or town where he or she is contesting for councillorship.
7. He/she has to have not less than ten sponsors who have been registered in the ward where he or she is contesting.
8. He/she must not be convicted for tax evasion for a period of 5 years before election.
9. He/she has to have a bond of 50,000 cash money and submit it to the election supervisor.
10. He/she must take oath using a special form in front of a magistrate to testify that he or she has the qualifications to be a councilor and has accepted to be a candidate.

b) A candidate for the parliamentary post

For the parliamentary post, a candidate has to have the following qualifications:

1. He/she has to be a citizen of Tanzania.
2. He/she should have attained the age of 21 years and above and be mentally fit.
3. He/she has to master writing and reading skills in English or Kiswahili language.
4. He/she must not be convicted for tax evasion for a period of five years before election.
5. He/she has to have at least 25 sponsors who are eligible voters in his or her constituency which he or she is contesting.
6. He/she must be a member of a registered political party and be appointed by the party to contest for the parliamentary post in the respective constituency.
7. He/she should take the oath by using special forms in front of the parliamentary post.
8. He/she has to have a bond of 500,000 cash money to be submitted to the election supervisor from NEC.

c) A candidate for presidential post

The qualifications of a presidential candidate of the United Republic of Tanzania are:

1. He/she has to be a citizen of the United Republic of Tanzania by birth.
2. He/she has to have reached the age of 40 years and above.
3. He/she has to have the qualifications that would enable him or her to be a member of parliament.
4. He/she has to be a member of a registered political party and should be appointed by the party to contest for the presidential post.
5. He/she should not have any record of tax evasion within a period of 5 years before election.
6. He/she has to take the oath in front of a judge of referral court to testify that he or she has accepted to be a presidential candidate.
7. He/she has to have 200 sponsors who have been registered as eligible voters from all regions of Tanzania. The sponsors should sponsor only one candidate for the presidential post in one election.

Role of various groups in the election process:

1. These nominate names of candidates who will contest for the existing vacancies.
2. Political parties have to provide civic education to their members and the public at large as well as encourage people to participate in political activities e.g. registration and voting.
3. Political parties have to prepare their party manifestos that disclose what will happen in case a party takes over the executive office.

Electoral commission

This is the key organization which oversees the entire election process:

1. It provides voters education.
2. It ensures fair play in elections.
3. It ensures the candidates meet the qualifications required for the post they are contesting for.
4. It prepares voters registration books and updates them; it ensures that every person who qualifies to be registered as a voter is given a chance to vote.
5. It prepares the constituency centers for voting.
6. It sets the dates of election.
7. It oversees voting activities in the whole country.
8. It announces election results.

The government

The government has to provide the financial, material and security support for the election process.

Non-government organizations (NGOs)

1. They provide voters education to the citizens by using different means and approaches.
2. NGOs must not impart education that can divide people by any means.
3. NGOs are not supposed to take the role of political parties.

Mass media

1. The mass media should educate people on the importance of participating in the election process.
2. The mass media should make sure that citizens are aware of political manifestations of every party, and play to be as impartial as possible.
3. The mass media should make people aware of election results as given by the Electoral commission.

The citizens

This is the target group; citizens have a big role to play in elections by:

1. Registering in voters registration book.
2. Participating in the campaigns and listening to the political agendas/manifestations of different political parties and deciding which to vote for the most appealing.
3. Casting their votes on the voting day.
4. Receiving, accepting or rejecting the result.
5. Informing the officials if they think there was malpractice in the electoral process, e.g. corruption and intimidation.

The election will therefore be free and fair only when all groups take part in the whole process. The failure of any group to take part in the process is likely to jeopardize the whole exercise.

The importance / advantages of democratic elections

1. Democratic elections help give the opportunity to voters to choose good leaders: voters believe that electing a different party or candidate can be an alternative to solve their problems and improve their lives. Thus elected voters make laws or by-laws that have a direct impact on the daily life of people. Good leaders are very important to people’s development.
2. To ensure good government: when good leaders are voted into office by the people through democratic voting they form a good and effective governance. Free and fair elections ensure that people make informed choices of parties and candidates.
3. To make the government accountable for its actions. The party which is voted into office seeks to serve well the voters. Elections are therefore means of building a responsible government by rejecting corrupt parties or candidates in an election.
4. To place in office a government of people’s choice: Democratic elections are vital in forming a new government. Through elections the voters show acceptance, rejection or dissatisfaction.
5. To improve the political system. Any ruling party which comes to power makes efforts to prove to the electorate that it is capable of forming an effective government. Opposition parties on the other hand try to convince the electorate that they can do better than the ruling party. In this situation the political system improves.

Shortcomings of democratic elections:

1. It is costly: the whole process toward Election Day is expensive. The procedures include scrutinizing candidates, publicity, driving electoral constituencies, registering voters, monitoring the campaigns, counting the ballot and verifying the ballot paper when necessary. All these require a lot of money.
2. Elections are time-consuming. This is because the outlined steps have to be followed precisely by all contestants and their supporters.
3. The reasons for choosing candidates can be right or wrong. In certain circumstances, some candidates may influence voters to vote for them through bribes, deceit, tribalism, religion, personal wealth, nepotism or social status.

Shortcomings in the multiparty general elections in Tanzania

1. Constraints on media: There are about 245 private newspapers, over 134 newspapers owned by government agencies and departments and about 44 religious newspapers. However, the Newspaper Act of 1976 contains many restrictions on freedom of the press. For example, section 5(2) grants vast power to the minister responsible for information to deregister any newspaper at any time he or she thinks it does not qualify. Similarly, section 25(1) gives the minister power to ban any newspaper at any time he or she deems right to do so. For example, in October 2008 Mwanahalisi was banned by the government for three months allegedly for having published seditious articles.
2. Shortage of funds: Section 13(1) of the Political Parties Act No. 5 of 1992 states that only registered political parties which have parliamentary seats and popular votes are qualified for funds. This makes only few political parties qualify for subsidies. For example, after 2005 general elections CCM received Tshs. 555.5 million per month (82.8%) of the total, CUF received 77.2 million, CHADEMA received Tshs 1.4 million. Hence there is a concern among opposition political parties that this wide resource disparity constrains the opposition to spread nationwide.
3. Oppressive laws on political association: Sections 40, 41, 42 and 43 of the Police Act, Cap. 322 R.E 2002 require any political party whether provisionally or fully registered to seek permission for the purpose of such a meeting. However, the police frequently use these sections to cancel opposition political parties meetings on grounds that the meeting is likely or intends to cause a breach of peace or jeopardize public safety in the area.
4. Lack of independence and impartiality of the National Electoral Commission: This stems from the fact that all members of the commission are appointed in a manner that is not clear and transparent to the extent that most stakeholders lose trust and confidence in the commission.
5. An element of corruption during campaigns and elections whereby party vanguards distribute items like t-shirts, khan gas, drinking food etc. to allure the voter.
6. Minimal participation of citizens in the election. Over 50% of the registered voters did not show up in the 2010 general election.
7. Poor preparation: For example, poor registration of voters led to some constituencies repeating voting exercises in Buseresere, Karagwe etc. during the 2010 general election.
8. Unequal access to media coverage especially state-owned media; opposition parties do not get adequate access to mass media owned by the government.
9. Intimidation of the opposition parties by government authorities. This includes raiding and interruption of opposition party campaigns.
10. The ruling party is constantly being accused of using state-owned funds and resources such as vehicles for party campaigns.

The practices of human rights

Meaning

Human rights are fundamental rights or rights that human beings are born with and are inherent in him or her and not granted by the state or any person.

Normally the state enhances human rights but does not grant the human rights.

Categories of human rights

Rights which an individual must have include but are not limited to the following:

a) Civil and political rights (also termed as the first generation rights)

They include the right to equality and protection before the law; right to organize; right to self-determination; freedom from arbitrary torture; right to life; freedom of assembly; right to due process; right to be leader or to choose representatives in the government; freedom of worship; freedom of movement; right to marriage; freedom of speech; freedom of expression; freedom of inquiry and criticism; freedom from slavery and servitude etc.

b) Solidarity, community or collective rights (also known as the third generation rights)

They include: right to cultural identity; right to clean environment; the right to development; the right to peace etc.

Origin and development of human rights

The standard western account of the tradition of human rights is somewhat problematic. The expression human rights is relatively new in daily use which started after the Second World War and the founding of the United Nations. Before this period, human rights used to be known as natural rights or the rights of man. Most scholars of human rights trace the concept back to ancient Greece and Rome. During this era, human rights were attached to natural law; it was conceived that all rights of citizens came from nature and not the state or individuals. However, the human rights development story has multiple layers as it involves a dispute between those who believe in human rights and those who doubt. Following below is a brief account of the important events explaining the historical background to the origin and development of human rights.

1. Early legal developments in the area of human rights are said to have emerged from the Magna Carta of 1215. The Magna Carta was a contract between the English King John and representatives who were dissatisfied with the taxes being levied by monarchy. This agreement guaranteed the right for a free man not to be arrested or detained in prison or deprived of his freehold or outlawed or banished or in any way molested unless by lawful judgment of his peers and the law of the land.
2. The English Bill of Rights of 1689 is also sometimes considered to be a stepping stone to today’s texts on human rights. The parliament declared that no excessive fine shall be imposed nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted.
3. The work of a number of philosophers and writers: The work of a number of philosophers had a very concrete influence on the articulation of demands in the form of natural rights of man. Some philosophers were John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emmanuel Kant, Alan Gewirth, Jeremy Bentham, Thomas Paine, Olympe de Gouge, Mary Wollstonecraft, Hersch Lauterpacht, etc.
   1. John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government published in 1690, considered men in ‘a state of nature’ where they enjoyed ‘a State of Liberty’.
   2. Jean Jacques Rousseau’s The Social Contract published in 1762 developed the idea that an individual may have a private will and that his private interest may differ from the common interest. He also argued that following the general will makes man free.
   3. Emmanuel Kant, a German philosopher, contributed to the contemporary appreciation of the importance of respecting human dignity as he developed two imperatives.
   4. Alan Gewirth: In the words of this modern philosopher, “Agents and institutions are absolutely prohibited from degrading persons, and treating them as if they had no rights or dignity”. This is often the starting point for right theories that emphasize the importance of individual autonomy.
   5. Thomas Paine was a radical English writer who participated in the revolutionary changes affecting America. He emigrated to America in 1774 and in 1776 produced a widely read pamphlet called Common Sense which attacked the idea of rule by Monarchy and called for Republic government and equal rights among citizens. He also worked on the constitution of Pennsylvania and fought for the subsequent abolition of slavery in that state. He further wrote a book entitled ‘Rights of Man’ which appeared in 1791 in defense of the French Revolution.
   6. Olympe de Gouge made effort to promote a Declaration of the Rights of Women and a ‘Social Contract Between Man and Woman’ with the view of regulating property and inheritance rights.
   7. In England, Mary Wollstonecraft’s “Vindication of the Rights of Women” appealed for a revision of the French Constitution to respect the rights of women, arguing that men could not decide for themselves what they judge would be best for women.
   8. Jeremy Bentham: In the 19th Century, natural rights or the rights of man became less relevant to political change and thinkers such as Jeremy Bentham ridiculed the idea that ‘all men are born free’ as ‘Absurd and miserable nonsense’. For Bentham, the rights were legal rights and it was the role of the lawmakers and not natural rights advocates, to generate and determine their limits.
   9. Amartya Sen: Contemporary scholars had a different thinking from that of Jeremy Bentham. For him, human rights are pre-legal moral claims that can hardly be seen as giving justiciable rights in court and other institutions of enforcement. He cautions against confusing human rights with legislative legal rights.
4. The 1776 American Declaration of Independence: This is also taken to be one of the influential phenomena to the birth and development of the practice of human rights. It stated that:
   

   “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”

5. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 contained articles which recognized and proclaimed that: “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights” and that “the aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and invaluable rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.”
6. The First World War event: The development and practice of human rights also has a bearing on the First World War. At the end of the war, the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 established the League of Nations and the International Labour Organization (ILO). The League developed and promoted minorities’ treaties; fostered the development of international workers’ rights and worked on the abolition of slavery. Specifically, the following developments by the League can be noted:
   1. The goal of fair and humane conditions of labour for men, women and children was stated explicitly in the League Covenant.
   2. The human rights of individuals were granted legal protection on the basis of individual ties to a state and in order to reduce political tensions among states that might lead to war.
   3. Workers’ rights were to be recognized and protected as this was seen by some states as the best way to prevent their population from turning to communism and to reduce the aims of revolution.
7. Inter-war period: During this period there was some interest in developing the scope of international law to cover concern for individual rights. Following the end of the Second World War, the United Nations Charter emphasized respect for human rights and obliged states to cooperate with the UN for the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights.
8. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): The establishment of the United Nations organization signaled the beginning of a period of unprecedented international concern for the protection of human rights. Under the auspices of the UN, several key instruments were established for the promotion and protection of human rights. The day after the adoption of the Genocide Convention, the General Assembly proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations. Though not a binding legal document, it contains actual human rights obligations and states a common understanding of the people of the world concerning the inalienable and inviolable rights of all members of the human family. Furthermore, through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the UN gave an international meaning to the expression human rights. Since then various human rights treaties have been developed. The following is an abridged version of those human rights contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
   1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and justice.
   2. No human being should be discriminated against on whatever basis such as nationality, colour, religion, gender, social class etc.
   3. Every human being has the right to live a free life and to be assured of his/her security.
   4. It is prohibited to enslave any human being.
   5. It is prohibited to persecute any human being or subject him or her to cruel treatment and humiliation.
   6. All human beings are equal before the law and have equal right to be protected by the law. Every human being has the right to seek and get justice in the courts whenever he or she falls victim of violation of his or her basic rights recognized in the constitution and the law of his/her country of residence.
   7. It is prohibited to arrest, detain or deport anyone from his or her country of nationality without fundamental reasons.
   8. Every accused person has the right to be heard and defend him/her in an independent and impartial court.
   9. It is prohibited to arbitrarily interfere with an individual person’s life such as his or her privacy, family, residence or communications.
   10. Every person has the right to seek and live a decent life politically, economically, health-wise and culturally.
   11. Every person has the right to choose where to live so long as in so doing one does not interfere with other people’s rights or the just laws of the country concerned.
   12. Every person has the right to leave his or her country freely and return freely without undue obstacles.
   13. Every person has the right to nationality. It is prohibited to strip someone of his or her nationality without basic reasons or deny him or her the right to change his or her nationality when he or she so wishes.
   14. Every human being individually or collectively has the right to own property.
   15. It is prohibited to confiscate someone’s property without a due and just legal process which guarantees satisfactory compensation.
9. The international conventions: Following the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations Human Rights Commission began to work on binding texts in the form of treaties together with measures for implementation. Two instruments were developed on 16th December 1966. These were: the Civil and Political Rights Convention (including rights like rights to life, liberty, fair trial, freedom of movement, thought, conscience, peaceful assembly, family and policy. It also prohibits slavery, torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment and punishment, discrimination, arbitrary arrest and imprisonment for debt) as well as the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Convention (including rights such as right to education, food, housing, health care, the right to work and to just and favorable conditions of work). Both of these came into force in 1976. These two covenants taken together with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights are sometimes referred to as the International Bill of Rights.
10. In addition to the International Bill of Human Rights, there are other treaties that are considered core to the human rights system. They include the “International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination” which came into force in 1969 and prohibits any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.
11. The other convention core to the human rights system is the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. This is designed to ensure women have equal access to political and public life as well as education, health and employment. Under this convention which entered into force in 1981, states are also obliged to modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customary and all other practices which are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women.
12. The Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment came into force in 1987. The convention includes a definition of torture (for the purposes of the convention) and insists that any party to it undertakes obligations: to take measures to prevent acts of torture in any territory under its jurisdiction; not to return any person to a state where there are substantial grounds for believing that person would be in danger of being subjected to torture; and to ensure that acts of torture can be prosecuted in the courts of that state even though those acts occurred abroad.
13. The Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as every human being below the age of eighteen unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. This has historical roots in the Geneva Convention of 1924 which was the first international covenant to mention the rights of the child. It seeks to protect children from practices that particularly endanger their welfare, including economic exploitation, trafficking, illicit use of drugs and all forms of sexual exploitation and abuse. The guiding principles of the convention are the need to take into account the child’s best interests, non-discrimination, and respect for the wishes of the child. The convention was adopted in 1989 but entered into force in 1990 and has become the most widely ratified of all UN human rights treaties. The only member states not to have ratified the convention are Somalia and the United States.
14. The other core human rights treaty is the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Their Families, which entered into force in 2003. Unfortunately, the states that have accepted obligations under this treaty are mostly states that export migrant workers; states that avoid the reach of this treaty and the prospect of supervision by the monitoring body.
15. Two new treaties were adopted at the end of 2006. The first is the International Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Key rights concern the right to work, and the right to education. States are obliged to refrain from discrimination on grounds of disability and to take measures to eliminate such discrimination by any person, organization or private enterprise.

The arrest, detention, abduction or any other form of deprivation of liberty committed by agents of the State or by persons or groups of persons acting with the authorization, support or deprivation of liberty or by concealment of the fate or whereabouts of the disappeared person, which places such a person outside the protection of the law.

Protecting human rights through the treaties/conventions/covenants:

These treaties, and a series of parallel developments at the regional levels such as the Organization of American States, the Council of Europe and the African Union, articulate a range of rights and testify to governments’ stated desire to protect human rights. But do they work? Clearly the daily evidence of human rights violations suggests that drafting and signing treaties is not enough. Considerable effort has been expended to make the treaty guarantees more effective. This has been undertaken on a number of fronts.

1. First, expert monitoring bodies have been established to examine the reports of governments on how they fulfill their human rights obligations. This involves a ‘constructive dialogue’ over two or three days and results in ‘concluding observations’ from the relevant committee. Some monitoring bodies engage in fact-finding and country visits. In the context of the prevention of torture, the Council of Europe’s expert body makes periodic and ad hoc visits to places of detention in 46 European states. A new UN committee is expected to undertake similar visits to those states that ratify a new treaty.
2. Second, under some treaties, complaints can be brought by aggrieved individuals against the state at the international level (usually only against those states that specifically recognize a right to complain under the treaty). In particular, one has to recognize the remarkable work of the regional bodies such as the European and American Courts of Human Rights and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights. These bodies have developed an impressive case-law which not only develops our understanding of the scope of human rights, but has led to some concrete protection and changes in the law. This system for individual complaints is at the same time remarkable for the volume of judgments delivered in Europe (the European Court of Human Rights delivered over 1,000 judgments in 2005) and for its astonishing under-utilization in the rest of the world.

INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS / COOPERATION

INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

This can be defined as political, economic, diplomatic and cultural relations among nations.

• Political relation: Cooperation whereby two or more independent states share ideas about political matters.
• Economic relation: Situation whereby two or more independent states share economic activities e.g. international trade. There are four forms of economic relations: free trade area, customs union, common market and economic union.
• Diplomatic relation: The level of international relation whereby different embassies are involved in structuring political, economic, social and cultural matters within their home countries and the host countries. A diplomat is a person who officially represents his/her own country in a foreign country.
• Cultural relation: Among the nations can be started in various forms like the exchange of dances, troops, theater groups, musicians and also sports and games e.g. through World Cup, UEFA, Kagame Cup, FA Cup etc. Different nations come together and compete. This situation develops strong cultural relations.

THE FOREIGN POLICY

Foreign Policy is the system established or formulated by a country in order to maintain its regular political, social and economic interaction with other states in the world. The interaction is made by diplomats who represent their respective countries. The main task for diplomats or ambassadors is to make sure that social, cultural and economic activities of their home countries are globally known and to prepare trips for the country’s rulers.

THE FOREIGN POLICY IN TANZANIA

Like other countries in the world, Tanzania has formulated a system of foreign policy to maintain regular political, social and economic affairs.

• Tanzania’s foreign policy is implemented and managed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Relations.
• Tanzania’s foreign policy is a policy of Non-Alignment.

TANZANIA FOREIGN POLICY PRINCIPLES

1. Promotion of independence of all other African states.
2. Maintenance of its freedom by determining domestic and foreign policy.
3. Promotion of international cooperation and understanding through organizations such as UNO, AU, and NAM.
4. Promotion of world peace and order through UNO, AU, and other international organizations.
5. Promotion and maintenance of human rights and democracy in the world.

Reasons for Tanzania choosing the policy of Non-Alignment

1. To avoid unnecessary international conflicts.
2. To maintain sovereignty on deciding international issues without being forced by bigger states.
3. To choose friends regardless of the influence of either of the blocks i.e. U.S.S.R and U.S.A.
4. To strengthen international cooperation and understanding.

How Tanzania foreign policy is implemented

Tanzania foreign policy is implemented by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation through the Embassies or High Commissions.

The main task of diplomats or Ambassadors is to make sure that social, cultural and economic activities of their home countries are globally known.

These diplomats or Ambassadors are also responsible for making prior preparations to facilitate trips of national top leaders like the president in their respective countries. These diplomats include the following:

• A diplomat: A person who officially represents his/her country in a foreign country. The highest diplomats are known as ambassadors or ambassadresses, high commissioners and consuls.
• An Ambassador/ambassadress: A government official representative living in a foreign country to conduct business with that host country on behalf of his/her home country. The office of an ambassador or ambassadress is known as an Embassy.
• A high commissioner: In Commonwealth countries, such representatives (ambassador/ambassadress) are known as high commissioners. The offices are termed as high commissions.
• A consul: A consul on the other hand is a representative of a town or city to help countrymen living or visiting there. The consul’s office is called consulate.

Bilateral cooperation

This is a type of cooperation which involves the agreement between two states e.g. Tanzania and Zambia in running TAZARA. In this cooperation there is no specific or common ideology governing the undertaking of the member countries.

Countries involved in this cooperation can agree to cooperate in various areas such as economic, cultural, scientific and technological researches, political, security and defense.

Multilateral Cooperation

This is the type of cooperation which involves a group of many countries like regional intergroupings such as SADC, EAC, COMESA, NAM, AU etc. Multilateral cooperation is sometimes known as regional multilateral integration.

Importance of multilateral co-operation

1. The country gets aid and loans from friendly nations with minimum nationalities or restrictions.
2. Promotion of both internal and external peace. The country is assured of security assistance from friendly nations and Tanzania participates in solving problems of other countries.
3. Improvement of transport and communication. Tanzania is able to improve transport systems across the borders due to friendly relations with the neighboring countries. For example, through Tanzania Mozambique Friendship Association (TAMOFA), Tanzania has been able to construct Mtwara Bridge in association with Mozambique.
4. Economic development has also been achieved through friendly relations with other countries. Investors from friendly states come and invest in Tanzania and thus contribute to the economic development of Tanzania.
5. International repute to Tanzania.
6. Industrial development in various sectors due to private investors from friendly nations and the presence of markets in those friendly states.
7. It has managed to create political relationships among the member states; this has helped to create collective effort in solving political conflicts in different countries.
8. SADC has been cooperating with other organizations such as the AU so as to build strong unity and solidarity among African countries.

PROBLEMS / CHALLENGES FACING MODERN AFRICA

1. Economic imbalance among member states; there is no effective and sustainable mechanism to address the imbalance.
2. Insecurity and endless conflicts within and around the East Africa Region. For example, in Northern Uganda there are endless conflicts between Government and Rebels.

SOUTHERN AFRICA DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC)

The meaning:

This is an economic grouping that brings together countries of Southern and Central Africa. This Association consists of 14 African countries namely: Botswana, Congo (DRC), Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho.

This was formed on 30th September 1993 to replace the former Southern Africa Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) which was established in 1980 by nine countries such as Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

OBJECTIVES OF SADC

1. To promote sustainable and equitable economic growth that will ensure poverty alleviation.
2. To achieve complementarity between national and regional strategies and programmes.
3. To promote common political values that are transmitted through institutions that are democratic, legitimate and effective.
4. To achieve sustainable utilization of natural resources and effective protection of the environment.
5. To combat HIV/AIDS and other deadly or communicable diseases.
6. To ensure gender mainstreaming in the process of community building.
7. To develop and communicate systems in order to stimulate agricultural and industrial development.
8. To promote peace and security among the member states.

PRINCIPLES OF SADC

SADC and its members act in accordance with the following principles:

1. Peace, solidarity and security.
2. Sovereignty of all member states.
3. Human rights, democracy and rule of law.
4. Peaceful settlement of disputes.
5. Equity, equality and mutual benefit.
6. Promotion of economic welfare of the region.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF SADC

1. Establishment of Regional Fund for HIV/AIDS. Approximately 15 million people in SADC region are HIV positive.
2. Peace stability – Since the Angola peace accord (Great) in April 2002, the region has enjoyed a certain degree of political stability between MPLA vs UNITA under Jonas Savimbi from 1970s – 1990s.
3. Economic growth – The Growth Development Programs (GDP) in the SADC region has increased from 27% in 2002 to 32% in 2004.
4. Women representation in political and decision-making positions is increasing very fast in the SADC member states. The target was to get 30% of women representation in politics by 2005; some member states have already reached the target. For example, South Africa 31.3%, Mozambique 31.3%, Tanzania 30%.
5. Improvement in food security – The number of people who need food assistance is decreasing. For example, in 2002 the number was 15.2 million people but in January 2004 the number dropped to 7%.
6. It has managed to create political relationships among member states; this has helped to create collective effort in solving political conflicts in different countries.
7. SADC has been cooperating with other organizations such as the AU so as to build strong unity and solidarity among African countries.

CHALLENGES FACING SADC

1. Nationalism – Some member states cater for national interests first before SADC; this undermines regional interests.
2. Different levels of development – This leads to inequality in the distribution of benefits derived from SADC undertakings. For example, South Africa is stronger economically than the other member states.
3. Weak financial base. Member states rely on foreign assistance which hinders SADC to become self-reliant.
4. Conflicts and wars in some member states e.g. conflicts in DRC.
5. Multi-membership among member states. Some member states are also members of other regional integrations such as EAC and COMESA.
6. Refugee problems – There is high influx of refugees in SADC region because of political instability in some member states.
7. Lack of economic diversity – SADC member states produce similar goods mostly agricultural products hence difficult to secure markets.
8. Low price of agricultural products in the world market.

THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)

ECOWAS is an economic integration of West African states formed in 1975.

Its members include:

Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo.

Objectives of ECOWAS

1. To promote cooperation and integration in economic, social and cultural activities.
2. To raise the living standard of its people.
3. To enhance economic stability among the member states.
4. To enable free movement of people, capital and services.
5. To coordinate industrial development in order to avoid duplication of resources and capital.
6. To harmonize agricultural policies and projects among the member states.
7. To achieve the common market, research and food processing.

Achievements of ECOWAS

1. Abolition of custom duties and tariffs on goods originating from West Africa.
2. It has managed to solve some political disputes within the member states. For example, it worked hard in restoring peace in Liberia after the outbreak of civil wars. This was done through ECOWAS monitoring group known as ECOMOG.
3. It has created free movement of people within the region; this has enabled people to cross the borders freely within the region.
4. It has established different environmental conservation projects in the region. For example, in 1982 a ten-year forestation project was established.
5. It has succeeded in peacekeeping through ECOMOG, which has intervened to restore peace in West African countries such as Liberia (1990), Sierra Leone (1994), Guinea Bissau (1998).
6. It has promoted relations among member states hence enhancing political and economic stability.
7. It has established a mechanism for conflict prevention, management and resolution.

Challenges facing ECOWAS

1. Political instability: This makes it difficult for the respective member states to implement the set objectives. As a result, ECOWAS concentrates much effort and time in solving political problems.
2. Economic dependence: The member states still rely on external aid to finance development projects. External assistance is normally accompanied by tough conditionality.
3. Low level of science and technology: The member states are technologically backward. As a result, they fail to utilize the available resources effectively.
4. Different levels of economic development: Some ECOWAS member states are economically powerful than others; these small powerful states dominate or influence the affairs of the organization.
5. Nationalism: Some member states cater for the national interest first before ECOWAS.
6. Poor communication system: There is poor linkage of roads and railways; most roads are seasonal.
7. Weak financial base: Most ECOWAS members have poor economic bases; this weakens the organization to reach its stated goals.

For example, Nigeria has a dominant role in ruling ECOMOG and carries a big share of ECOMOG. This is because ECOMOG commanders have been predominantly Nigerian commanders.

International peace and understanding

The background of the African Union (AU)

On 9th September 1999, the Heads of State and Government of the OAU issued a declaration for the establishment of the African Union (AU) with a view of accelerating the process of integration in the continent.

The AU was established to replace the former OAU. Since then, four summits have been held leading to the official launching of the AU. These include:

1. The site extraordinary session (1999), which decided to establish the AU.
2. The home summit (2000) which accepted the Constitutive Act of the Union.
3. The Lusaka summit (2001) which drew the roadmap for the implementation of the AU.
4. The Durban summit (2002) which launched the AU and convened the first Assembly of the heads of state of the AU.

The Vision of AU

The Vision of the AU is to create a united and strong Africa in building partnership and all segments of civil society modern to strengthen solidarity amongst the peoples of Africa.

Quest for Unity

African countries in their quest for unity, economic and social development under the barriers of OAU, have taken various initiatives and made substantial progress in many areas that paved the way for the establishment of the AU.

Objectives of the AU

1. To achieve greater unity and solidarity among African countries and the people of Africa.
2. To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of its member states.
3. To promote peace, security and stability on the continent.
4. To promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and good governance.
5. To accelerate political and socio-economic integration of the continent.
6. To promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent and its peoples.
7. To promote international cooperation, taking due account of the UN Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
8. To promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels as well as integration of Africa.
9. To advance the development of the continent by promoting research in all fields particularly in science and technology i.e. research in malaria.
10. To work with relevant international partners in the eradication of preventable diseases in order to promote good health and living standards.

Achievements of the AU

Since the Lusaka summit decisions on the transition from O.A.U to AU, progress has been made as follows:

1. It has promoted African unity and friendship by being a forum where African leaders meet annually to discuss affairs of the continent.
2. It has managed to solve internal conflicts and civil wars in some states. For example, in Comoros where the AU intervened to back up the government of President Ali Abdullah Sambi from rebels led by Colonel Bakary.
3. It has managed to promote African regional economic integration e.g. promoting the African Development Bank (ADB).
4. It has managed to make peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiations, mediation and conciliation e.g. settlement of Kenyan disputes peacefully as well as settlement of dispute in Zimbabwe by establishing the coalition government of President Robert Mugabe of ZANU – PF and Morgan Tsvangirai from MDC.
5. AU through cultural activities like the African Cup of Nations has helped to promote closer understanding, cooperation and friendship among African states.
6. It has maintained the no-interference into the internal affairs of the states.

Implementation of AU objectives

1. There has been a renewed commitment to human rights, good governance, social and economic reform and development.
2. Intensification of efforts to fight against HIV/AIDS in the continent. There are more efforts made to fight the pandemic which is claiming the lives of many young and energetic people.
3. Recognition of the importance of gender balance in the election of the Africa Union’s commissioners and in the election of a woman as parliament’s first president. For example, Gertrude Mongella.
4. It has established NEPAD (New Partnership for Africa’s Development) with the focus of developing the African states. NEPAD is the latest scheme for boosting economic development among the African states.
5. It has managed to create the Court of Justice which interprets laws and protects them. Through this organ there is an improvement on respect of human rights.
6. There is a monetary institution such as the African Central Bank which provides loans to member states instead of depending much on foreign countries.
7. There has been an establishment of the Pan-African Parliament and the Peace and Security Council. The latter was launched on 26th May, 2004. Thus, it is hoped that the Peace and Security Council will continue serving as an efficient tool in materializing the Africa agenda for conflict prevention, management and resolution.
8. Promotion of democracy. Many African countries hold multiparty elections. Widespread consultations on constitutional reforms are occurring in many African countries due to the efforts of AU.

CHALLENGES FACING THE AU

1. Different levels of development: Some AU members are economically powerful than others so they tend to influence the affairs of the AU as well as dominating others. For example, South Africa and the North African countries (Arab countries) like Egypt are not ready to cooperate closely with poor countries and also Nigeria.
2. Economic dependence: African countries retain a dependent economy inherited from colonialists and continue under neo-colonialism e.g. technological dependence, budgetary dependence, loan dependence and expatriates.
3. Conflict and wars within the AU members. For example, in DRC, Mali, Sudan.
4. Terrorism and threats in some African countries. For example, Kenya (Westgate issue in 2013), Somalia, Uganda, Nigeria.
5. Poor communication system and transport problems – there is inter-territorial linkage where bordering states organically belonged to different colonial masters.
6. It is not an autonomous organ – it is dependent on UN organs. AU has no standing army of itself; this is because the AU cannot operate military or form a standing army without the consent of the UN Security Council. This delays its ability to settle situations that call for immediate action.
7. Refugee problem in Africa – due to political instability leading to high influx of refugees and political instability in some member states. Examples include Tanzania from Rwanda, Burundi and DRC; Chad from Sudan; Kenya from Somalia.

International peace and understanding

A. Causes of conflicts in Africa

A conflict is the term which includes the actions, propagandist, the diplomatic, commercial or military threats and punishments that the contending parties take towards each other.

Conflicts can involve four levels, namely, societal, communal, interstate, and interpersonal or conflicts are grouped into five levels: (1) those among communities/groups within the state; (2) those between communities across national borders; (3) those between communities and central governments; (4) those between communities and multinational corporations; and (5) those between governments. It needs to be pointed out from the outset that overlaps can occur in this categorization, but the division can assist in identifying some of the complex ramifications through which conflicts are expressed in Africa.

The escalating problems of conflicts in Africa can be attributed to the following:

1. Problems associated with land scarcity: difficulties arising from conflicting laws governing land tenure; boundary disputes and rival claims to specific portions of land; demands for a review of “landlord-tenant” arrangements over land ownership; the clash of spiritual considerations with political and economic realities; complaints over government’s land regulatory policies; complexities of massive human influx; and conflicts arising from land and labor relations.
2. Self-interests of some individuals: As a factor for fueling conflicts, oil in Nigeria, oil and diamonds in Angola, rubber and timber in Liberia, diamonds in Sierra Leone, and land in Zimbabwe, etc. have become one of the most controversial issues in Africa, especially through the increase in the number of armed groups exploiting such natural resources to advance their desire for self-determination or pursue other self-interest. For example, from Angola and Liberia to DRC and Sierra Leone, armed groups have exploited the natural resources inside their territories and have initiated constant wars against their respective governments.
3. The desire to control regions endowed with natural resources: The desire to control regions endowed with natural resources has always increased the determination with which warring sides instigate wars, resulting in an increase of casualty figures. In all major conflicts, the location of natural resources has always been a prime target for warring sides, and battles fought over these sites are often some of the fiercest. An example that quickly comes to mind here is the struggle for the control of the mineral-rich Kisangani in the DRC between the forces of Uganda and Rwanda. Another example can be seen in Angola, where the northeastern provinces of Luanda Norte and Luanda Sul, the location of the country’s diamond deposits, were among the most highly contested sections of the country during the civil war.
4. Colonial boundaries and inter-regional conflict. For example, in Kenya and Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Kenya and Uganda, Cameroon and Nigeria as well as Uganda and Tanzania.
5. Corruption, nepotism and lack of transparency in public offices. These have led to embezzlement in public funds and uneven distribution of national resources. Some people are segregated from the national cake and hence this makes them to fight against the domination.
6. Tribalism, regionalism and religious differences. For example, Nigeria Muslims against Christians; in Uganda the central region against the northern part; in Burundi Tutsi against Hutu.
7. Weak economic base or poverty. This has been the root cause of civil wars and instability in Africa. Many Africans have turned against their government accusing them of segregating them from sharing the national cake.
8. Abuse of human rights like freedom of speech, arbitrary arrest, extrajudicial killing, etc.
9. Coup d’états in various countries or struggle for power.
10. Ruling regimes unwilling to step down after elections. This has been due to either vote rigging or clinging to power and this has led to political chaos. For example, Laurent Gbagbo of Ivory Coast refused to step down despite being defeated by his political opponent Alassane Ouattara during the elections held in November 2010. This led to political chaos and death of people.
11. Puppetism: Most of the leaders are used by economically powerful countries to foster instabilities for their gain.

B. Strategies for conflict resolution

There are three basic procedures for arranging compromises:

1. (i) Negotiation among parties: This procedure involves bilateral or multilateral negotiations among the parties involved. Condition for success of any negotiation is a common interest on the part of the opponents to avoid violence. The bargaining process involves:
   • The establishment of commitments to essential positions.
   • Determination of areas where concessions can be made.
   • Commissioning of credible threats and promises.
   • Maintaining patience.
2. (ii) Mediation: This strategy involves passing messages between the parties to activate agreement in the bargaining and attempts to place pressure on the antagonists to accept peace proposals that the mediator has proposed. A mediator can be, for instance, the Security Council. In this procedure, a third party with no direct interest in the issue intervenes in the bargaining processes.
3. (iii) Adjudication and arbitration: It is a strategy of conflict resolution in which the parties involved in conflict agree to submit the issues under contention to an independent tribunal. The court is supposed to decide the case on the basis of international law and jurisdiction extends only to legal issues such as interpretation of treaty, any question of international law or the existence of breach of an international obligation. The prerequisites of successful adjudication and arbitration include:
   • The existence of legal issues.
   • Voluntary submission of the case by both parties involved in the conflict.
   • Agreement that settlement.
   • Willingness to accept an award rather than bargain for compromise outcome.

THE NATURE, CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF TERRORISM

What is terrorism?

Terrorism is the use or threat of violence by groups of people to create fear for the aim of changing a certain behavior in the society. Terrorists kidnap people, hijack airplanes, set off bombs, set fires and commit other serious crimes. The goals of terrorists differ from those of other ordinary criminals because most criminals want money for personal gains, whereas terrorists commit crimes to support political causes.

Nature of terrorism

The ‘nature’ of something is generally taken to mean ‘the typical qualities and characteristics of something’. Hence, there are a variety of attributes of terrorism such as:

1. It is often symbolic in character.
2. It is often indiscriminate in nature.
3. It typically focuses on civilian and non-combatant targets of violence.
4. It has sometimes provocative and sometimes retributive aims.
5. It causes the disruption of public order and puts in danger public security.
6. It leads to the creation of a climate of fear to influence an audience wider than the direct victims.
7. It disregards the rules of war and the rules of punishment.
8. It has an asymmetric character (armed versus unarmed; weak versus strong).

If the nature of terrorism is to be derived from its components, thus, the nature of terrorism can be stated to be an intentional and rational act of violence to cause fear in the large audience or society for the purpose of changing behavior in the audience or society.

Causes of terrorism:

1. Social and political injustice: People resort to terrorism when they are trying to right what they perceive to be socially and politically wrong. For example, when they have been stripped off their land or rights.
2. Ethnicity, nationalism/separation: An aggrieved group may resort to violence for nationalist or separatist reasons. This is taken as resistance against external oppression. For example, nationalist movements commonly turn to extremism.
3. Social stratification inequalities in the distribution of scarce resources are an important factor for terrorism when the goods are absolutely or relatively scarce.
4. Absence of democracy: Use of draconian laws which oppress population may tempt population to resort to harm the government leaders or government properties.
5. Dehumanization: The simple-minded population may resort to terrorism fighting for being heard, recognized or treated as equal human beings seeking liberation from government in power.
6. Religious jingoism: Some religious groups have a strong belief that their religion is better than other beliefs so the religious people may use force or violence to pressurize the dominance of that particular religion over the larger group of people in the society.

EFFECTS OF TERRORISM

1. Death of people, e.g. on 11th September 2001, three airplanes were hijacked by terrorists whereby 3000 people died.
2. Decline of tourism.
3. Unemployment.
4. Decline of investments due to increase of insecurity and fear, leading to economic retardation.
5. Terrorism has forced many governments in the world to set aside huge budgets for fighting terrorism.
6. Destruction of infrastructure: Following the USA embassy bombings in Dar es Salaam and Nairobi, there was destruction of buildings and difficulty to attain federal level in EAC.

Tanzania waited more public education objectives of goals.

Tanzania feared their land will be occupied by their counterparts (fellow).

Feared to lose employment opportunity.

Political instability in Kenya, Uganda.

Power mongers, Museveni waits to get power as leader of EAC.

Economic imbalance.

The role of big powers in maintaining peace and understanding

Big powers of the world especially the developed continue to have the following roles in maintaining peace and understanding:

1. Developing political relations of equal, mutual trust and seeking common ground while putting aside differences among them.
2. Cooperating worldwide to cope with challenges. For example, fighting against terrorism, environmental pollution, etc.
3. Forging deep command and candid disloyalty for parties involved in conflicts.
4. Advocating the peaceful use of outer space and opposing the intrusion of weapons and an arms race in outer space. For example, in February 2008, China and Russia jointly submitted to the Conference on Disarmament a draft treaty on the prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space and the threat or use of military weapons against outer space objects.
5. Taking efforts to combat the illicit trade and Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) through the arms trade treaty.
6. Big powers observe in good faith their obligation under the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and support the multilateral effects aimed at strengthening the effectiveness of the convention. For example, China, USA, Russia, etc. fulfill this.
7. They oppose the proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and actively take part in international non-proliferation efforts. For example, China holds that all states should resort to dialogue and negotiation to resolve differences in the field of non-proliferation.
8. Holding joint counter-terrorism military exercises. For example, in August 2007, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan held a joint counter-terrorism military exercise in Xinjiang Uygur in the task of combating terrorism.

The historical background to the United Nations and its objectives

The world experienced many tensions, conflicts and threats from big nations such as Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Australia, Hungary and Japan in the 1900s. The tension among these nations led to the First World War (1914-1918) and Second World War (1939-1945).

The peaceful atmosphere of the world was disrupted as battles and deaths prevailed. The period between the First World War was characterized by efforts of the concerned big states to look at the means through which worldwide peace can be maintained.

After the First World War, the League of Nations was formed in 1919. Its major task was to supervise peace in the world by controlling the aggressive nations such as Germany and Italy. However, the League of Nations proved to be a toothless dog that could bark without biting since aggressive actions continued and rearmament progressed. These actions led to the outbreak of the Second World War. After the nations had proved failure and had to be changed or transformed to United Nations Organization (UNO). Its major tasks, like the predecessor, was to make sure that there is no occurrence of another world war. The UNO thus came into existence on 24th Oct, 1945 when five big powers ratified the charter. These were China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the United Kingdom and the USA.

The role of United Nations in maintaining peace and understanding

1. Since 1988, the UN has played an instrumental role in bringing about settlements to long-running civil wars and foreign armed intervention. For example, UN in Afghanistan, Mozambique, El Salvador, Namibia, Angola, etc.
2. Influencing decolonization and writing constitutions, organizing and monitoring elections as well as establishing administrative and financial organs for the new states.
3. To handle armed conflicts.
4. To invoke sanctions against aggressive states.
5. To settle some disputes in the world.
6. To control armament in the world.
7. To fight for human rights in the world.
8. To promote environmental conservation.
9. To fight against terrorism.

GLOBALIZATION

Meaning of Globalization

Globalization refers to the integration of different parts of the world into a global village. It involves integration of economy, politics, culture, science and technology among nations. Globalization is driven by international trade, investment, information and technology.

Origin of globalization

Historically, globalization is not a new phenomenon. The interconnectedness and interdependence of the world between its different social, political and economic components started as far back as during the European mercantile period (1500-1750 A.D) and has continued up to the present.

During the European mercantile period, European merchants crossed their borders and conducted trade in other parts of the world like Africa, Asia and Latin America. The event of slave trade and the exportation of Africans from their continent to other continents, notably the Americas linked Africa more and more with the outside world. All these activities were demonstrations of globalization at that time.

Furthermore, the event of the Second World War (1939-1945) also accelerated globalization in that after that war the world became more and more interlinked at the economic level. For example, USA assisted the war ruined economy of Western European nations from collapsing. In 1947 USA extended an economic recovery programme (Marshall Plan) to Western European countries. USA and European countries became closer allies not only economically but also politically since both of them were capitalists.

In the 1980s there was a historical point of departure. The international politics not only posed economic and social transformation but also nation’s balance of power. Socialism and capitalism ideologies divided the world into two antagonistic camps, namely the capitalist bloc led by USA and the socialist bloc led by Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). This was during the Cold War period that lasted from 1945 to early 1990s. From early 1990s socialism fell in Russia (the first socialist nation in the world). This paved way to the rapid spread of capitalist ideologies among different countries of the world. Since the early 1990s globalization has quickly touched the entire world in terms of advancement of science and technology. All these changes have brought together people from all different nations of the world to operate and work together as one village.

Driving forces of Globalization

1. Advancement in science and technology. This has contributed greatly to the development of global interconnectedness of world society into a global village.
2. Free market economic system, characterized by profit maximization to generate capital for investment.
3. Advancement in education. Education contributes to the development of science and technology and there is integration of people from far distances i.e. universities.
4. Movement of people from one country to another, e.g. tourists, businessmen, diplomats.
5. Finance – there is a global flow of money driven by interconnected currency markets, stock exchanges etc. The flow of money is facilitated by IMF and World Bank.
6. Democratization in form of multipartism and good governance.

Features / Aspects of globalization

As an economic, political and social phenomenon, globalization is associated with the following major aspects:

1. Information and communication technology: Globalization is characterized by advancement of information and communications technology. For example, computer screens, radio, newspapers, televisions and mobile phones.
2. Movement of people: There have been increasing movements of people from one country to another. These people include tourists, immigrants, refugees, business travelers and diplomats. Hence, these movements make the world interconnected.
3. Spread of ideas and ideology: Spread of knowledge, ideas, information and ideologies have been integral aspects of globalization. Direct foreign investment brings both physical capital and technical skills on production methods, managerial skills, marketing skills and global economic policies. Spread of technical know-how goes hand in hand with diffusion of political ideologies. For example, multiparty democracy has become a worldwide political ideology.
4. Free market economy: Globalization has brought about the integration of international political economy through inter-financial institutional policies and international trade. The main emphasis is to minimize the direct involvement of government in economic production.
5. Financial globalization: There is a global flow of money driven by interconnected currency markets, stock exchanges and commodity markets. The flow of money is also facilitated by international financial institutions such as International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.

The Influence of globalization on social, political and Economic Reforms in Tanzania

The Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs)

Structural Adjustment Programmes refer to the list of budgetary and policy changes given by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank (WB) as prior conditions to be met by developing countries to qualify for a loan, grant or aid. These conditionalities typically include: reducing barriers to trade and capital flows, tax increases as well as reduction in government expenditure.

Objective of SAPs

1. General poverty reduction by improving the living standards of the people in the Least Developed countries.
2. Improve the public investment programmes.
3. Agricultural sector reforms, market liberalization and institutional reforms.
4. Improving sectoral resource allocation and mobilizing domestic resources and restoring growth to the economy.
5. Devaluation of local currency for eliminating exchange rate distortions in order to raise the domestic currency price.
6. Tax reduction on imports and elimination of barriers or restrictions in trade sector.
7. Rationalization of public sector to enhance employment opportunities.

Factors that led to the emergence of Structural Adjustment Programmes

1. Economic crisis: The worldwide oil shocks of 1973 led to the backsliding of the economies of developing countries as this was accelerated by poor economic policies. Per capita income and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) declined rapidly for most of sub-Saharan Africa countries. Hence, the SAPs emerged out of the western financiers’ tune to the poor countries as they requested for loans in order to revamp their dwindling economy.
2. The increase of external debt within the region: The increase of external debt within the region made many African countries fail to improve their economic growth. For example, around 1980s the external debt reached USD 129 billion. Hence, they were to fulfill these conditionalities in order to get loans.
3. Poor delivery of services: Poor salaries and non-compliance with financial order plunged developing countries into the unkind Structural Adjustment Programmes. The governments were accused of being bloated with too many people doing very little work. Hence, failure of government to provide services to the citizens and overburdened structural systems led to introduction of SAPs by donor countries.
4. Falling of Educational Standards of all levels. Most Africans failed to afford the cost of education due to poor economy.

Principles of Structural Adjustment Programmes

1. Redefining the roles of the Government: The governments had to embark on supervisory and regulatory roles. To do this the roles of the governments were to be putting favorable policies in place and provision of a conducive investment environment for local and foreign investment.
2. Redundancy and reduction of workers.
3. The government had to transform the economy from centrally planned public owned economy into market driven sector led economy. The states were required to eliminate tariffs, reduce taxes and promote the role of private sector in the export trade and liberalization of domestic retail and wholesale trade.
4. Reduction of public expenditures in social services by introducing cost sharing policies in all social services such as education, health, water, etc. which were formerly provided freely by the government.
5. The governments to withdraw from providing agricultural incentives like subsidies to farmers. The agricultural sector was to be under privatization to minimize the government expenditures.
6. Privatization of public owned enterprises. The intention was to consolidate and ensure effective performance in the trade sales and joint ventures.
7. Devaluation of currency.

Achievements of Structural Adjustment Programmes

1. The formation of adjustment programmes and policies with the intention of economic sustainability, efficiency and growth. Structural adjustment programmes have raised the standard of people in the respective countries through privatization policy.
2. Investment performance improved mostly in strong reforms in the years between 1980-1984-1987.
3. Average annual export growth rates rose by 5-6% in strong reforms from 1980 to 1987.
4. In countries where there were strong reforms, agricultural production, exports, investments and consumption increased during 1985-1987.
5. Exchange rates grew in some African countries. For example, Nigeria witnessed increased prices and exchange rate in 1980 where regional output was 50% and increased to 86% in 1987.

Failures of Structural Adjustment Programmes

1. Structural Adjustment Programmes failed to implement most of the predetermined objectives and principles to the developing countries and instead these have accelerated the rate of poverty in rural areas. This has mainly been due to the fall of agricultural sector which is the backbone of the economy of most developing countries.
2. Diversification of economy is still low due to unstable economy because low capital earnings in the developing countries tend to be directed to different socio-economic issues.
3. Export capital and investment capital ratio is still low in developing countries especially in the sub-Saharan African countries. This is because the conditionalities issued by the IMF and World Bank to the developing countries affect the capacity of investing the imported capital.
4. Agricultural and industrial products are still not satisfactory due to improper investment and inadequate technology.

A: Privatization

(a) Meaning

Privatization refers to the process of transferring assets and activities of public sector to be run by the private sectors or individuals. Privatization is one of the results of Structural Adjustment Programmes which has been emphasized by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank (WB) and donors from abroad such as Britain, France, USA, Denmark and Germany.

(b) The objectives of Privatization

1. To create more market-oriented economy where those privatized firms will participate in the stock market.
2. To improve productivity of economy and efficiency of privatized parastatals.
3. To secure and enhance access to foreign markets, capital and technology through attracting managerial and technological resources from the private sector.
4. To broaden share and ownership through equal provision of public services to all levels.
5. To reduce the overwhelming and challenging increase of public debt.
6. To preserve the goal of self-reliance.

C. Measures Taken to enhance Privatization

1. To improve the operational efficiency of enterprises and their contribution to the national economy by selling them to private investors.
2. To reduce the burden of parastatal enterprises to depend on the government budget.
3. To sell parastatal enterprises to private investors so as to expand the role of private sectors in the economy and permit the government to concentrate on core functions due to the relieved burden of dealing with production activities.
4. To encourage wider participation in the ownership of private companies and management of business by selling and telling private investors to engage in production.

Advantages of Privatization

1. It has increased flexibility due to the reduction of bureaucratic complexity and procedures in order to improve the national economy.
2. It has reduced costs resulting from inefficiency in production through competitive processes.
3. Privatization has led to the improvement and rise of competition among the existing private organizations and in the public sectors.
4. It has met demands beyond the current government capacity because the private sectors encourage competition which increases the level of productivity and efficiency.
5. Privatization provides clients with more choice of options where they can satisfy in terms of contract, salaries and working conditions.

Disadvantages of privatization

1. Increase of unemployment to the indigenous: Privatization has increased unemployment of indigenous people. This is because most of the people come from outside to work. When any public enterprise is privatized it is accompanied with massive redundancy of the previously employed people.
2. Fall in agricultural sector. It has led to the fall in agricultural sector due to the withdrawal of the government from providing incentives.
3. Reduction of quality of services. Privatization has increased temptation to reduce quality of services in order to reduce costs and maximize profit.
4. Increase of the rate of moral erosion: Privatization increases the rate of moral erosion due to its policy of free trade. The private companies tend to import all goods without considering consumers. For example, pornographic pictures and other related films or VCD/DVD which affect the younger generation.
5. Increase the rate of poverty: Privatization policy increases the rate of poverty to people living in rural areas who depend on agriculture for the better quality of their life.

B. Trade liberalization (free trade)

Trade liberalization refers to the reduction of tariffs and trade barriers to permit more foreign competition and foreign investment in the economy. It is a term which describes complete or partial elimination of trade restrictions through elimination and reduction of trade barriers such as quotas and tariffs.

Free trade is the unhindered flow of goods and services between and/or among countries and is a name given to economic policies and parties supporting increases in such trade. For example, Tanzania introduced trade liberalization from mid-1980s following the IMF conditionalities to be fulfilled for a country to qualify to be given loan or grant.

C. Democratisation process

The democratisation process is looking at the following basic principles:

1. Free and fair political competition: A free and fair election is the situation whereby choosing of leaders is done democratically. In order to be free and fair elections there ought to be the following requirements:
   • Competitive: Elections for holding different political positions such as presidential, Parliamentary, Councilor or Local Government political position must involve different political parties which compete to win such positions.
   • Periodic: Elections need to be carried out in a specified period for all political leadership authorities. In Tanzania, General Elections are conducted every five years. For example, a president, Member of Parliament or Member of House of Representatives (in Tanzania Isles) or a Councilor stays in power for a five-year term. A president can be elected for tenure of two consecutive terms while other posts have no limit for one to contest for leadership.
   • Inclusive: Elections must include or involve a large number of adult populations who qualify to be registered as voters.
   • Definitive: Elections must aim at getting rulers who must have legitimate power or authority to direct other people towards better national development.
   • Elections must ensure that the electorates are not limited in selecting candidates or even in making decisions.
2. Political tolerance: Political tolerance is the ability to accept different political points of view of other people. The majority group has a duty to respect convictions and ways of life of the minorities.
3. Citizen participation: Citizens participation includes standing for elections, debating issues, voting on elections, gathering for community meetings, joining political parties and organizations, protesting and paying taxes.
4. Equality: This means that people are valued equally. They have equal opportunities. No one is discriminated against.
5. Accountability: Appointed and elected officials must make decisions and perform their duties according to the wishes of the people not for their own interests.
6. Smooth transfer of power: There needs to be a well-established and transparent system of transferring power from one political party or regime to another.
7. Economic Freedom: This means that the Government should allow people to own private property and businesses. People can choose work and join trade unions. There should be free markets. The state should not control the economy.
8. Control of power abuse: Elected and public officials should be prevented from misusing their power. For example, there must be in place mechanisms to control corruption.
9. Inclusion of a bill of rights in the constitution: A bill of rights is a list of rights and freedoms guaranteed to all citizens in a country. The bill of rights limits the power of government. It may also impose obligations on individuals and organizations.
10. The rule of law: It means no one is above the law, not even an elected president. Everyone must obey the law and if one violates the law he/she must be held accountable.
11. Sovereignty: Sovereignty means the freedom to decide and execute domestic and foreign policies without interference from another country. Therefore a neo-colony can hardly exercise democracy.

Comparison and difference between idealism and materialism:

• Both are philosophical concepts which explain about the existence of things in the world.
• Both are branches of metaphysics, which is one of the branches of traditional philosophy.
• Both have tried to explain reality; no branch comes with a conclusion in order to make people appreciate.
• Both tried to argue about education and the whole process of learning.
• Both originated from philosophy.

LIFE SKILLS

Life skills are the abilities for adaptive and positive behaviors that enable individuals to deal effectively and efficiently with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Generally, life skills are the strategies or techniques that a person must possess in order to perform his or her activities successfully.

What is life?

Life = existence + activities.

Skills – are learning abilities to carry out the activities efficiently and effectively.

Skills – education, training and experience.

The core skills of life skills are:

1. Decision making.
2. Problem solving skills: Realize actual situation and realize the desired outcomes/situation. Take action and come out with strategies to take you to your desired destination.
3. Critical thinking skills.

1. DECISION MAKING SKILLS

The ability to evaluate information and advice to make informed decisions, assess the advantages and disadvantages of different options, change decisions to adopt new situations and plan for the future.

2. CRITICAL THINKING

The ability to analyze social issues/influences as well as cultural influences on attitudes, values, behaviors, injustice, stigma, explore and evaluation.

3. EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Ability for understanding how others are communicating.

4. INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

Ability to build positive relationships with others.

5. EMPATHY

Ability of putting oneself in other person’s shoes, in order to understand them well.

6. COPING WITH EMOTIONS AND STRESS

Ability to deal with threats and challenges.

7. SELF AWARENESS

Ability to identify personal strengths, weaknesses and vulnerabilities, clarify personal values and beliefs and recognize personal worth and personal happiness.

MORAL VALUES

• Moral: Ethical principle that distinguishes what is right and what is wrong.
• Ethics: The fundamental moral principles and rules that guide people in performing their activities. Every institution or profession has its professional code of conduct for behavioral guidance on its members.
• Moral value: Things held to be right or wrong, desirable or undesirable. They are acquired through teaching and inheriting from parents and the society.
• Value: All good practices in any society.

Character involves good habits and civil virtues which hold a community together and allow us to live together in harmony.

Moral values are the universally accepted principles that govern the day-to-day living of life.

CLASSIFICATION OF MORAL VALUES

1.) PERSONAL MORAL VALUES

Are the rules that guide a person. A child growing up in a family is introduced to various values held by the family members. Children get to learn things from their peers or elders in appropriate behaviors.

2.) FAMILY MORAL VALUES

Are the rules or values that are considered important by the members of the family. Most families will emphasize the basic values. On the other side, most families have a set of values that are unique to the members of that family.

3.) SOCIETAL MORAL VALUES

Are the values held by all members of the society or community. They are formulated based on religious doctrines or political ideology. These values are maintained through the use of laws, norms and rules established by that large group.

MORAL FUNCTIONING

1. Moral judgment: Involves an evaluation of actions with respect to norms and values established in a society.
   • Moral Judgment competence: Ability to apply/use moral orientations and principles in a consistent and differentiated manner in varying social institutions.
2. Moral action: An action that does not involve the violation of another person’s rights.
3. Moral motivation: It involves a response/reward from our actions or behavior in our daily life.

IMPORTANCE OF MORAL VALUES

1. Moral values help society to maintain peace and harmony.
2. They help people to abandon feelings of anger against themselves.
3. They help to promote fairness and justice in society.
4. They help people to understand their limitations and other people’s limitations on different matters/phenomena.
5. They help people to overcome any threat and challenge because people will not let fear hold them back and therefore they will be able to achieve their objectives successfully.
6. They help members of the society to promote socio-economic development.
7. Moral values help people in a society to advance in their personality and professional life.
8. They help to promote unity, love and cooperation among members of the society.
9. They help to reduce social crimes and evils in the society.

ERODED MORAL VALUES/ MORAL VALUE EROSION

The erosion of moral values is growing throughout the world. The world we live in is changing rapidly. Towns and cities are growing and the lifestyles of the people who are living in them are changing too. The decay of moral values certainly does erode the strength of the society, because morals are the social strength.

INDICATORS OF ERODED MORAL VALUES

1. Fall of human dignity. Actions and practices devaluing humanity (humans) respect.
2. The growth of individualism: Involves the practice or actions of considering one’s needs/priorities before community or others’ needs.
3. Increase of number of divorces.
4. Violation of professional code of conduct. E.g. Corruption.
5. Increase of dropouts in schools.
6. Arrogance: Feeling that one is more important than others.
7. Excessive drinking over feeling.
8. Discrimination: Practice of treating someone or a particular group of people less fairly than others.

CAUSES OF MORAL VALUES EROSION

1. Diffusion of ideas, beliefs and ideologies (cultural change): In a positive way, diffusion of ideas helps people to get new knowledge and increase people’s thinking ability or ways of thinking but on the other side, other people tend to imitate immoral practices or values such as homosexuality, fighting, improper dressing, prostitution, drug abuse etc.
2. Development of ICT (Technological change): On the positive side, development of ICT is very important for society’s development in all spheres of life but on the other side many people especially the youth tend to misuse the electronic devices by imitating immoral practices like drug trafficking, cyber crimes, sexual relations before marriage, improper dressing, sending naked pictures to one another, watching pornographic movies etc.
3. Development of Urbanization: It leads to occurrence of immoral practices/actions due to congestion of people with different social status and values, unemployment problems, housing problems etc. Then others tend to engage in immoral practices such as prostitution, theft, killing etc. so as to run their life.
4. Market system: Presence of capitalist economy characterized by free market economy and profit maximization. The producers ignore the moral values for the purpose of getting super profit. For instance, some producers employ children (child labor) contrary to the society’s norms and law.
5. Growth of democratization: Other people misuse the aspects of democracy like individual freedom; they ignore the ethical principles and rules in order to exercise their freedom. They ignore limitations on individual freedom; also people are killed when they engage in political demonstrations etc.
6. Individual over ambitious desire: Other people purposely engage in immoral practices in order to become rich in a short period of time.
7. Exposure to drugs: Other people engage in immoral practices because of the influence of drugs like cocaine, marijuana etc. The drug users are ready to steal the property of other people so as to get money for buying drugs.
8. Decline in religious upbringing: Other religions teach their followers to perform suicide so as to reach a good place in heaven when they die, hence people engage in terrorist attacks etc.
9. Genetic influence: Others are engaging in immoral practices due to the influence of genetics; they biologically inherit the character of their elders or parents, characters like telling lies, prostitution etc.
10. Socio-economic influence: Poverty also influences other people to engage in immoral practices such as prostitution, stealing etc.

EFFECTS / CONSEQUENCES OF MORAL VALUES EROSION

1. Increase of the number of crime cases: In the society as people purposely engage in immoral practices such as robbery, kidnapping, killing, drug & human trafficking, corruption etc.
2. The strength of the society is being eroded: The society lacks peace, unity and justice. Many people come to ignore the available social norms and rules. Everyone thinks for his or her own family; as a result unity, love and cooperation disappear.
3. Violation of people’s rights: Other people come to ignore limitations to individual freedom; they interfere with the rights of others just to satisfy their own desires in immoral ways. This makes other people not have access to education or health services. For instance, some parents in rural areas force their daughters to get married while they’re still young. They stop them from attending schools so that they live with men/husbands.
4. Increase of the income gap between the poor and the rich: Other people ignore the available ethical principles because of the desire to accumulate a lot of wealth for themselves; they do not consider the needs of others. The policies and laws are made in such a way that they favor the few and undermine the majority; as a result, the few become richer and the majority become poorer. For instance, some leaders in government departments distribute national resources such as funds unfairly in order to benefit their areas where they come from and make other areas undeveloped.
5. Unequal and unfair distribution of national resources: For instance, some leaders in government departments distribute national resources such as funds unfairly in order to benefit their areas where they come from and make other areas undeveloped.
6. Poor performance in primary and secondary schools in internal and national examinations: Many researches show that there is a close relationship between performance and rate of discipline among students. According to many academic researches, students who have good discipline perform better academically than students with poor discipline.
7. Increase of dropouts in schools: Many students are losing their opportunity or right to get education because of engaging in immoral practices or behavior such as sex before time, drug abuse, forced marriage etc.
8. Increase of truancy in schools: Other students/pupils become truants because of engaging in immoral practices such as attending night clubs, doing business, prostitution etc.
9. Disappearance of justice & fairness in social, legal, political and economic institutions: Immoral practices such as corruption in legal institutions make poor people lose their rights simply because they don’t have money to corrupt officials in courts.

IMPACT OF CULTURAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE ON MORAL VALUES

1. CULTURAL CHANGE

Cultural refers to the ideas, beliefs and customs that are shared and accepted by people in a given society. It is time relevant, changing with circumstances.

The change of the ideas and beliefs shared by people in a particular society signifies that culture is always not static but dynamic.

FACTORS FOR CULTURAL CHANGE

Cultural Change is the process of social adaptation of new circumstances brought by external or internal forces like introducing new technology, new religion, new language and increasing socio-economic development of productive forces within societies.

Factors influencing cultural change include the following:

1. Migration / Immigration: Migration is the movement of people from one place to another such as from rural to urban and from one country to another. A person may be affected by the ways of life in the area of destination. This is because he/she must imitate certain systems of his or her residents so as to cope with them. For example, people from rural areas tend to be absorbed by town culture because in town traditional culture is normally abandoned.
2. Communication: People communicate with others from different parts of the world. Through communication, people imitate new culture from different groups. This process makes culture change because of learning new ways of life.
3. Social, political, cultural and economic liberalization: Liberalization means removing something that brings restrictions politically, economically and socially. Free market economy leads to influx of goods which may adversely affect culture of indigenous people.
4. Influence of socialization agents: Socialization agents include peer groups, schools, religion and mass media. These are instruments through which a person can learn and get different information about a society. Mass media such as magazines, newspapers, radio, and television make us learn new systems of life which are not present in the society. For example, wearing styles, shaving styles, application of decoration and cosmetics for beauty.

Advantages of cultural change

1. It helps man to master his environment better due to acquisition of new life skills.
2. New technology improves the welfare of the people economically, politically, socially, etc.
3. It helps man acquire new skills, behavior, and knowledge. Hence, mastery of his social, political and economic life.
4. Through education, society is exposed to external cultural contrast and challenge.

Disadvantages of cultural change

1. The education and knowledge acquired from outside may conflict with tribal culture and traditions. Hence, create passivity from the concerned tribes.
2. Strategic customs like female short dress, tight clothes etc. have been sources of problems. For example, temptation to men towards offences like rape.

Technology change and Moral values

The question is whether there is conflict between technological change values and the moral values of society. Has it done more good than harm? If this is taken into account, the following are effects of technological change on moral values.

1. Increase of social vices: The use of internet, television, videos, and pornographic pictures has led to increase of bad behavior such as murder, violence, robbery, prostitution, drug abuse and racial segregation.
2. Environmental destruction: The invention of nuclear bomb has negative impact on societal values of taking care of environment since the nuclear wastes are radioactive.
3. The invention of test tube babies technology: Test tube babies are produced by taking an egg from a woman and placing it in a container with sperms from a man. If the egg is fertilized, the resulting embryo is placed in the woman’s womb to develop normally. This reduces the dignity of humankind since it alters the natural form of fertilization reproductive organs which requires sexual intercourse for fertilization to take place. Contrary to this, it means family ties are not important.
4. Unemployment problem: The use of computers has eliminated many from employment. Lack of employment leads to acts like robbery, prostitution, etc. in the society.

IMPORTANCE OF PROMOTING THE CULTURE OF CARE AND MAINTENANCE

1. Environment conservation.
2. Costs of maintenance are always low.
3. Life span of the various facilities will be prolonged.

POSSIBLE EFFECTS RESULTING FROM THE FAILURE OF POLITICAL AND GOVERNMENT LEADERS TO ADHERE TO LEADERSHIP ETHICS

Leadership ethics refers to identified values at workplace such as stewardship, discipline, pursuit of excellence in service, loyalty to government, diligence, integrity, accountability to the public, respect for the law, proper use of official information, impartiality, punctuality and trust. Thus, a leader working while complying with law is an ethical leader.

These effects resulting from failure of political and government leaders to adhere to leadership ethics include the following:

1. Corruption and abuse of public office will be high.
2. Nepotism and red-tape will be rampant.
3. People lose confidence and trust in their government and leaders.
4. The nation fails to derive political goods, protection, social security; the executive will not be able to serve the people and the parliament will not be able to do its oversight role.
5. Hostility.
6. Immorality.
7. Incivility and rude behavior.
8. Discrimination: Practice of treating somebody or a particular group of people less fairly than others.
9. Aggression: Feelings of anger and hatred that may result in threatening or violent behavior.
10. Arrogance: Feeling that one is more important than other people.
11. The use of foul language.

STRATEGIES FOR MAINTAINING AND PROMOTING MORAL VALUES

Most of the violent/anti-social incidences that happen in our societies can be prevented or reduced in the following ways:

1. Law enforcement and punishment for law breakers.
2. Adherence to religious teachings.
3. Civic education to people to have a good values system.
4. To discourage importation and use of drugs.
5. Tackling the continuing social scourges like poverty, hunger, unemployment.
6. Individuals to develop a critical thinking mind.

CULTURE OF CARE AND MAINTENANCE

Meaning

It is a system of planning maintenance which involves inspection, followed by maintenance and modification necessary to be made so that property can be used for a long period. Maintenance involves repairing property timely before it gets damaged completely.

THE PROCEDURE FOR PREVENTIVE CARE AND MAINTENANCE

Preventive care should be considered under the following:

1. Cleanliness of the surroundings.
2. The frequency of check-up and inspection on property.
3. Maintenance that minimizes the costs of up-keeping of buildings, furniture and fixtures.
4. Regular maintenance that creates a conducive environment for users.
5. Institutions or public places should have a timetable to ensure preventive care.
6. Regular care and maintenance of existing buildings and facilities so as to ensure and prolong the life of buildings and equipment.

EFFECT OF FAILURE TO TIMELY CARE AND MAINTENANCE

1. Increase in costs of repair. Man-made objects like buildings, roads, railways and property like books and domestic items need to be repaired immediately when damages occur. Otherwise they will cost much if they are neglected.
2. Environmental degradation: This is caused by deforestation, soil erosion, water erosion and air pollution. Land degradation caused by man should be avoided in order to conserve our environment.
3. Rampant destruction of private and public properties.

PERSONAL AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

1. Personal skills

These skills are such as self-awareness, self-esteem, assertiveness, coping with emotion, decision making and negotiation to mention just a few.

a) Self awareness

Involves the ability of individuals to know and understand their potentialities, feelings, biases, emotions, weaknesses and strengths. People should not live as if there are no reasons to live. People should know that they have crucial reasons to live and objectives to accomplish so as to make the world a good place for every person to live.

Self-awareness helps a person to identify his/her areas of weakness and strength before taking any decision. It helps a person to understand his/her value and the need of taking care of his/her body or health.

Self-awareness helps a person to cope with any situation including emotions. It helps a person to recognize emotions and ways to overcome emotions.

b) Assertiveness

Refers to the individual’s ability to express his/her emotions and needs without violating the rights of others and without being aggressive. Assertiveness is built by self-esteem. It helps a person to have ability to respond confidently to any situation. It gives courage to a person to find information or facts before making any decision. It makes a person to think and work for better results. Assertiveness makes a person to value and respect other people.

c) Self esteem

It is acceptance of the way we are so one becomes proud of oneself. If a person has high self-esteem, he/she cannot engage in any attempt of changing her/his physical structure, the color of the skin, the style of the hair etc.

d) Coping with emotion/ stress

Emotions are strong feelings such as fear, love, anger, shyness and the desire to be accepted or loved. Each individual has emotions. Emotions are unpredictable and often lead to actions that are not based on reasoning. On the other side, stress is the body’s reaction to a change that requires a physical, mental or emotional adjustment or response. Stress can be caused by examination fever, broken relationships, family problems, unwanted pregnancies, death of a friend or family member etc. Stress may result in pressure, mental disorder, heart attack etc.

Skills for coping with stress/emotions help an individual to identify or recognize stress/emotion, understand the causes and effects of stress/emotion and make a right decision that takes account of them. Failure to cope with stress/emotions may lead to suicide, fighting, murder, divorce, pressure, heart attack, strokes, death etc.

e) Analytical skill

Is the ability to visualize, articulate, and solve both complex and uncomplicated problems and concepts and make decisions that are sensible based on available information. Such skills include the ability to apply logical thinking, to gather and analyze information, design and test solutions to problems, and formulate plans.

f) Creative thinking skills

Are the abilities that involve the generation of new ideas within or across domains of knowledge, established symbolic rules and procedures. It usually involves the behaviors of preparation, incubation, insight, evaluation, elaboration, and communication.

Creative thinking skills help individuals or learners to engage in:

• Bringing together existing ideas into new configurations;
• Developing new properties or possibilities for something that already exists; and
• Discovering or imagining something entirely new.

g) Critical thinking skills

Involve the active, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or form of knowledge, the grounds that support it, and the conclusions that follow. It involves analyzing and evaluating one’s own thinking and that of others. Critical thinking skills help people to engage in:

• Raising vital questions and problems and formulating these clearly and precisely;
• Gathering and assessing relevant information, and using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively;
• Reaching well-reasoned conclusions and solutions and testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
• Openly considering alternative systems of thought; and
• Effectively communicating to others the analysis of and proposed solutions to complex challenges.

h) Problem solving technique

Is the ability to identify differences between actual state and desired state of affairs and then take the right actions or decisions to clear the problem. A problem can be defined as a doubtful or difficult matter requiring a solution or something hard to understand or accomplish or deal with.

i) Decision making skill

Ability to evaluate information and advice to make informed decisions, assess advantages and disadvantages of different options, change decision to adapt to new situations, and plan for future.

2. Interpersonal skills

Are the abilities for building positive relationships with other people. Building positive relationships with other people involves the ability of people to meet and relate with others in various settings. For instance, when children grow up, they develop relations with family members, adults, peers and people they meet in life; hence children need to know how to react appropriately in each relationship they develop.

We have cases where children are cheated by adults who pretend to be their friends but with bad intentions. Children end up being mishandled, raped and even murdered. Parents have the responsibility of guiding children to build this skill of positive relationship with others.

a) Friendship formation

Is the ability to understand how friendships are formed, how to form and develop positive friendship. A person should be able to identify and recognize good and bad friendship through studying the behavior, perception and character of persons. A person should be able to resist relationships with people who have developed behaviors like telling lies, stealing, taking alcohol, dangerous sexual behavior (prostitution, anal sex, oral sex & homosexuality) etc.

b) Empathy

Is the ability of putting oneself in other people’s shoes with the intention of understanding them well and collecting more information about them that will enable a person to make right decisions and help others overcome different problems and challenges in their life.

c) Peer resistance

Is the ability to stand up for one’s values and beliefs conflicting ideas from friends or peers. Peers can come with unacceptable or wrong suggestions and may put pressure on one to accept the wrong suggestions. A person needs to defend his or her decision with strong and clear reasons of not accepting that idea. If possible a person can even decide to stay apart from that group if he will be forced to accept unacceptable practice like taking illegal drugs.

d) Negotiation skills

Is the ability to compromise on issues without destroying one’s principles. It helps a person to manage to state his or her own position and build mutual understanding with people without fighting or violence. It involves assertiveness, empathy and friendship formation skills.

e) Effective communication

Is the ability of listening and understanding how others are communicating, as well as realizing how one can communicate in different ways. It is the ability to write, listen, express and use language properly. Effective communication gives a person access to collect information which will enable a person to improve his understanding and ability to make decisions.

HOW PERSONAL AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS CAN BE USED IN SOLVING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

1. Life skills help to solve problems such as HIV/AIDS pandemic and the related problems.
2. Life skills lead to the development of social awareness among different people ranging from family to national level.
3. Personal and interpersonal skills increase the ability to plan ahead and choose effective solutions to problems.
4. Personal and interpersonal skills address the needs of people with varying strengths and weaknesses. They help to interact with other people appropriately.
5. Personal and interpersonal skills enhance working with a community holistically and with maximum cooperation.
6. Personal and interpersonal skills are an integral part in preventing persisting problems such as drug abuse, unwanted pregnancies and suicide.
7. Through these life skills people learn to cooperate, bargain collectively, struggle with peer pressure and solve problems.
8. Personal and interpersonal skills empower the younger generation and assist them in facing challenging situations in their lives.

SELF RELIANCE AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

THE CONCEPT OF SELF RELIANCE

The ability of an individual or community to depend on one’s own ability and efforts and not depending on another for one’s survival.

Self reliance is the ability, commitment and effort to provide the necessities of life for self and family. A self-reliant person must neither rely on others’ assistance nor on government assistance, because nobody cares more about helping you or your family in times of difficulties than yourself.

Example: You were recently laid off from your job and you need to look for another job. If you don’t secure it, you cannot feed yourself or your family or pay installments for your home. In such cases you don’t sit down and wait for the job to come to you. You go out and look for it. You do anything you can do in order to survive.

Entrepreneurship is the process of organizing, managing or assuming the risk of business for the sake of profit. The essence of entrepreneurship is the freedom to do what you want or like in order to make profit.

Entrepreneurship is an act of being an entrepreneur.

Who is an entrepreneur?

An entrepreneur is one who brings resources, labor and other assets into combinations that make their value greater than before.

Today, many young people express their motivations for becoming entrepreneurs in terms of satisfaction that entrepreneurship gives them as well as the sense of being in control of their own destinies.

Examples of Entrepreneurs

• Nimrod Mkono – Mkono company and advocates
• Reginald Mengi – Ipp media (Capital TV, ITV)
• Anthony Dialo – Sahara communications (Kiss FM, RFA)
• Yudkas Mremi – Dar Express company
• Bill Gates – Microsoft Corporation

Generally, both self-reliant persons and entrepreneurs take some initiatives for personal and community development.

ELEMENTS OF SELF RELIANCE AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

1. Vision with judgment – ability to see opportunities, plan for future and make sensible decisions.
2. Risk taking / taking calculated risk.
3. Optimism – having hope that positive outcomes will be realized.
4. Endurance – ability to continue performing activity for a long time without complaining.
5. Courage – ability to face threats, challenges or new situations without fear.
6. Uniqueness – ability to perform activities in a different way.
7. Effective communication.
8. Determination – the ability that makes a person continue performing activity in a difficult situation.
9. Power of creating cooperation.

THREE APPROACHES USED TO DETERMINE ELEMENTS OF SELF RELIANCE AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

1. Where and how they are applied.
2. How they affect the structure, organization and success of small enterprises.
3. How nations further an entrepreneurship climate.

DEMONSTRATION OF SELF RELIANCE AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP SKILLS

1. Through creativity, risk taking and opportunity undertaking.
2. Through showing open-ended opportunity and challenges.
3. Through making profit.
4. Using the learned skills to make right decisions.
5. Becoming bosses of their own destiny.
6. Applying supervision skills for their undertakings.