GENERAL STUDIES As LEVEL(FORM FIVE) NOTES – PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION

PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION

PHILOSOPHY

I. Concept of Philosophy

Philosophy is a Greek word composed of two words: Philo meaning love or pursuit of, and Sophia meaning wisdom (knowledge). The simple meaning of the combined word is the love of wisdom or knowledge. Loving wisdom involves seeking to know and understand what things are in their nature, reason for existence, and outcome of their existence.

Wisdom is the state of using intelligence in doing anything by acting, planning, or thinking.

Philosophy can be defined as the rational speculation about the reality of anything existing in this world. This study involves critical thinking, which is systematic, on the nature of the world by giving justifications based on belief and correct conduct of life.

Philosophy is the study of the nature, causes, and principles of reality, knowledge, and values based on logical reasoning rather than empirical methods. It attempts to discover the meaning and purpose of existence through reflection on all dimensions of thought.

(i) Being the concept of philosophy in its meaning involves three technical explanations:

1. Philosophy is an activity.
2. Philosophy is a set of mind attitudes.
3. Philosophy is a study of content, a body of knowledge.

Philosophy involves asking questions and thinking about them regarding the nature of all existing things in the world. People concerned with this work (asking questions and thinking about them) are termed philosophers, e.g., Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Karl Marx, Frederick Engels, T. Kennedy, Kwame Nkrumah, J.K. Nyerere, Siddhartha Gautama, Jesus Christ, Mohammad.

The activities of asking questions and thinking about them are categorically put in the following areas:

(a) Synthesizing: Providing a comprehensive view of the work or reality from questioning and critically thinking on the question. For example, saying biology is the study of living things or geography is the study of the environment.

(b) Speculation: Thinking beyond what can be demonstrated physically, e.g., talking about the shape and sex of God and gods.

(c) Prescription: Establishing norms, standards, conduct, and ethics when performing or approaching a given philosophical idea. It also involves thinking.

(d) Analysis: Critical examination of the words used in communication when operating a given philosophical idea.

(ii) Philosophy is a set of mind attitudes speculating on what is reality and the nature of the world. It starts first with ideas developed in an active mind. Therefore, a person needs an active mind that will bring the development of new philosophical ideas, including commitment, self-awareness, desire for completeness in work, and desire for speculative examination of phenomena (wishing to go deep in understanding reality). Our mind needs flexibility and openness to allow new ideas that might be philosophical when examined.

(iii) Philosophy is a study of content. It deals with asking questions and forming answers with justification on the nature of reality. It is a body of knowledge. Philosophy studies the following content:

• What is reality? (Metaphysics)
• What is the nature of the truth of knowledge? (Epistemology, Theology)
• What is value? (Axiology)
• Rational critical thesis reasoning (wisdom) (Logic)

NATURE / HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy can be traced back to the period when man started to speculate about physical as well as man’s physical phenomena in the universe. Philosophy started with wondering or curiosity; that is why it is called the search for wisdom.

Philosophy started with rising questions. For example: “What next after a person has died? Is there another life apart from the universe life? If there is, where?”

By its origin, the classical period of philosophy is traced from philosophers in Athens, which is divided into four large eras.

THE ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY (600 BC – 400 BC)

This is the time when philosophical ideas were said to originate and were initiated by philosophers like Socrates (469 – 399 BC), Plato (427 – 347 BC), and Aristotle.

MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY (400 BC – 16 AD)

The history of Western medieval philosophy is generally divided into two periods: early medieval philosophy, which began with St. Augustine in the mid-4th century to the 13th century, and high medieval philosophy, which lasted up to the 14th century with philosophers like St. Thomas Aquinas.

RENAISSANCE PHILOSOPHY

This is sometimes known as modern philosophy and is influenced by technological innovations. During this period, new ideas about human experiences started to gain momentum, especially in the 16th century in Europe, later Asia, and other parts of the world like Africa. The prominent philosophers of this period include Karl Marx, Frederick Engels, George W.F. Hegel, Lenin, Kwame Nkrumah, and J.K. Nyerere.

The Eastern Philosophy

Broadly, the various philosophers of East Asia included China, India, Japan, and Persia. Ancient Eastern philosophy developed mainly in India and China.

THE AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY

There is no evidence about the exact time when philosophy started in Africa. However, much like the historical development in other parts of the world, philosophy that emerged in Africa was also based on discussing the reality of things in the world.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy, being an inquiry dealing with everything existing in this world, is divided into four branches having sub-branches of specification in each as follows:

1. METAPHYSICS

This is the branch of philosophy that attempts to study the reality of things beyond physical manifestation. It is made up of two Greek words: “Meta” meaning beyond and “physics” meaning material. In studying this, metaphysics performs the speculation and synthesis activities of philosophers as they ask the question:

WHAT IS REAL?

Metaphysics attempts to answer this question in four branches:

a) Cosmology: This sub-branch deals with the study of reality about the universe in its material, nature, origin, space, period, and purpose.

b) Theology: This sub-branch deals with the study of reality about faith, religions, and beliefs in questions like the nature of humanity, the divine power, existence of God and gods, how many gods, Satan and angels, and the relationship between man and God.

c) Anthropology: The study of man as an object and subject. It answers questions like who and what man is, the relationship between body and mind, the evil and good that man has, and the soul of man.

d) Ontology: The sub-branch that answers questions like the meaning of life and existence, what existence is, what exists, the size, shape, and color of existing ideas, etc.

2. EPISTEMOLOGY

This is the branch of philosophy that deals with the theory of knowledge and truth. It studies the nature of knowledge, its ability, sources, acquisition, and validity in the human mind. Epistemology thus shows some approaches identifying the type of knowledge and its sources.

TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

(a) Empirical knowledge – This is the type of knowledge obtained through experiments and experience done by sensing, smelling, and testing.

(b) Revealed knowledge – This is the kind of knowledge obtained through inspiration and divine power. People are manifested to have this type of knowledge through their interpretation and prophesying ability.

(c) Authoritative knowledge – It is a kind of knowledge obtained from personal authority and experts in something. It may be connected to actual practices and authorities in social lives, e.g., elders.

(d) Rational knowledge – This is the type of knowledge obtained from critical and rational reasoning on something existing. It involves the power of thought and judgment of materials.

(e) Intuitive knowledge – It is the kind of knowledge derived from instances of intuition (knowing something without going through sensory perception or reasoning).

III. AXIOLOGY

This is the branch of philosophy dealing with the general theory of values. It answers questions on what good and bad values are in connection with their judgment and association with the human mind on how to appreciate them. They are justified in two aspects:

(a) ETHICS

The part of axiology that studies and analyzes moral values. It identifies right and wrong conduct together with its nature in human behaviors.

(b) AESTHETICS

This aspect deals with the creation and principles of art and beauty. It studies human feelings, thoughts, and attitudes on how they appreciate what is seen as beautiful. Aesthetics is the principle of beauty, its nature, and how beauty is made.

IV. LOGIC

This is the fourth branch of philosophy that deals with the principles and methods of correct reasoning. It explores how we can distinguish rational or logical thoughts from irrational thoughts.

There are two methods of reasoning:

(a) Deductive reasoning

This is the form of reasoning from general premises of something to a specific idea or thought. In this form, a conclusion is reached through the method of demonstration.

(b) Inductive reasoning

This is the form of reasoning whereby a conclusion is reached by using premises from specific to general. In this approach, one is forced to accept the conclusion through given premises.

Importance of logic to man

(i) Logic investigates how arguments are formed.

(ii) Logic examines arguments in any language to distinguish between correct and incorrect reasoning.

RELATIONSHIP AND IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY TO MAN

(i) Philosophy enables people to generate principles and norms of conduct. For example, there are several norms adopted in some social institutions like churches, schools, etc.

(ii) Philosophy helps to enhance understanding about the existence of man in the world through speculations.

(iii) Philosophy develops curiosity among people in critical thinking. Through critical thinking, a person can apply deep logical and analytical processes to understand reality.

(iv) Philosophy encourages the love of work and responsibility of people in society. For example, the philosophy of socialism and self-reliance in Tanzania advocated by J.K. Nyerere encouraged equality and hard work.

(v) Philosophy is regarded as the core mother of all other subjects in the world.

(vi) Philosophy has been used to boost social services such as education. Different philosophers have been surveyed to be used in the field of education (Education for self-reliance).

APPROACHES TO PHILOSOPHY

Philosophers have advocated their philosophical ideas focusing on two approaches: Traditional Approach and Modern Approach.

1. TRADITIONAL APPROACH

(i) Idealism

(ii) Materialism or Realism schools of thought.

IDEALISM

This is the school of thought which emphasizes the reality of anything associated with the mind or consciousness (idea). They believe that only ideas are real and not material objects.

Idealists suggest that an idea is the primary unit of material; the idea starts first in our minds, then an object is structured and designed into reality.

The idealists include Plato, Hegel, and G. Berkeley.

MATERIALISM / REALISM

This school of thought criticizes idealists. According to them, the existence of objects depends on experience over any material and inductive reasoning (reasoning/judging from specific to general). Materialists believe that an object is real simply because the universe is material in nature. So, for them, material/object starts first, then ideas are produced from the material. Philosophers here include Karl Marx, Aristotle, and V. Lenin, who is also considered to have developed communism with Karl Marx, who called it socialism.

2. MODERN APPROACH

This approach emerged as a critique of the traditional approach, which failed to establish the framework of their ideas and beliefs on the nature of reality. The modern approach developed ideas that identify the framework of thoughts as:

(i) Pragmatism

This school of thought supports the idea of scientific observation and experience in suggesting the nature of reality.

They believe that the nature of reality is an observation of experimental changes of the material rather than basing on beliefs or ideas. Based on scientific observations and experiments, the modern approach also suggests other ideas such as existentialism, neo-Marxism, and Marxism, which focus on the reality of humanness and consider human beings as the only unique creatures in the world.

DIFFERENT PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS

(a) The Ancient Philosophers

(i) Socrates

A Greek philosopher who lived from 470 BC to 399 BC. He developed the philosophical idea of rational (critical) thinking as the only way and method of attaining knowledge. Socrates discouraged empiricism and suggested questioning and dialogue development or debate (asking “what”) to give a good room for knowledge and understanding an idea or reality of something. The advanced ideas were:

• There is only one good knowledge and one bad ignorance.
• To attain knowledge, one should consider himself ignorant first.
• No man does evil willingly.

NB: Socrates believed in education, free will, knowledge, and virtue.

(ii) Plato

He was a Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, and writer of Socrates’ philosophical ideas. He developed the idealism philosophy, suggesting that only ideas are real and all other things reflect the idea. Plato emphasized the idea of real education, suggesting that “A strong, just, and civilized society will only be built where there is the existence of a real idea of education.” According to Plato, the idea of real education was the basis of any developed society which is strong and civilized.

Plato classified society into three groups of people having different ranges in the perception and reality of education and its yields as follows:

• Golden boys: The group of people who are bright, having a good perception of the idea of real education and its products. This group identifies all educated people and suggests them to hold administrative positions like governors, rulers, planners, policymakers, diplomats, etc.
• Silver boys: This group consists of less bright people who can only catch some training; these can be trained to become defenders of national interests like soldiers and watchmen.
• Iron boys: This group consists of less intellectual people having poor understanding ability. These are to be trained for manual work and unskilled duties. Plato emphasized dialogue as the better method of arriving at a good conclusion. He also suggested that it is better to suffer than to commit injustice. Plato also suggested “it is only punishment that will change people who commit injustice.”

(iii) ARISTOTLE

The Greek philosopher Plato’s student, he developed the philosophy of using intelligence and principles to arrive at a goal.

Aristotle inverted the idea of science philosophy, separating it from rational thinking philosophy. This branch of philosophy focuses on principles, which he called metaphysics. According to Aristotle, the equation of knowledge is connected to some principles and it starts from what we know or think, then asking what, how, and why. He also suggested the following ideas:

• Good does not change.
• Ethics and politics are the bases of people who are living happily.
• Logical reasoning is important in the changing nature.

(II) THE MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHERS

This period is identified by philosophers who attempted to put into practice the ancient philosophical ideas and their modifications to see their validity. These include:

(i) St. Thomas Aquinas

His argument was that everything that exists has a cause. But since there could not be an infinite chain of causes back into the past, there must have been an uncaused first cause. “This is God.”

(ii) St. Augustine

Suggested the following religious ideas:

• God exists in the soul of every human being.
• People cannot change their sinful ways unless by the help of God’s grace.

(iii) PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS OF KARL MARX AND LENIN

Karl Marx was born in Trier, Germany, on 5^th May 1818 and died on 14^th March 1883.

Karl Marx’s ideas on capitalism, scientific socialism, and communism (1818-1883 AD) can be understood by looking at his fundamental doctrines analyzed below:

• The economic interpretation of history
• Dialectical materialism
• The class struggle
• The doctrine of surplus value
• The theory of socialist evolution

PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS OF LENIN (1870 – 1924 AD)

Lenin was a Russian revolutionary thinker born on 22^nd April 1870 and died on 21^st January 1924.

Lenin’s ideas on capitalism, scientific socialism, and communism include:

IDEAS ON IMPERIALISM

Imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism. According to him, this stage had characteristics which would finally destroy itself. These include:

• Dominance of export of capital, not goods.
• Concentration and centralization of production by big enterprises.
• The merging of bank capital and industrial capital to form finance capital, in which banks took up the new role of lending money and directing investment.
• Dominance of monopolies in the form of cartels, syndicates, and trusts.
• The formation of international monopolistic associations which struggle to divide the world among the capital powers.

LENIN’S IDEAS ON SOCIALISM

He believed that socialism in society is always a result of revolution in which the working class would take control of government and means of production.

PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS OF KWAME NKRUMAH (1909 – 1972)

(a) Historical background

Kwame Nkrumah was born on September 21, 1909, in Nkroful, Gold Coast (now Ghana). He led his people in the struggle for independence from Great Britain to independence in 1957. He was named life president of both the nation and his political party until the army and police in Ghana seized power in 1966. He found asylum in Guinea and died in 1972.

(b) Ideas of Nkrumah on Socialism

Nkrumah was a Marxist who believed that there was the existence of classes and struggle in Africa. He said:

“Nothing is farther from the truth. Africa’s class struggle has been raging in Africa… As in the rest of the world, it is a struggle between the oppressors and the oppressed. According to Nkrumah, revolution is an integral part of the world socialist revolution.”

(c) Ideas of Nkrumah on Freedom

Nkrumah’s political philosophy was based on the need for the freedom and unification of Africa. He said:

“For freedom is not a commodity which is given to the enslaved upon demand; it is a precious shining trophy of struggle and sacrifice.”

(d) Ideas of Nkrumah on Neo-Colonialism

Nkrumah urged that neo-colonialism represents imperialism in its final and perhaps most dangerous stage. He said:

“The essence of neo-colonialism is that the state which is subjected to it is in theory independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality, its economic system and political policy are directed from outside.”

(e) Ideas of Nkrumah on Unity

That Africa must unite was one of his key political ideas. In 1963, he wrote a book “Africa Must Unite”. In his book, he advocated for the political union of African states as the means to safeguard African independence and the soundest foundation of economic, social, and cultural achievement.

PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS OF J.K. NYERERE (1922 – 1999)

He was born on April 13, 1922, at Butiama village near Musoma to a local Zanaki chief called Nyerere Burito. He was the first Prime Minister of Tanganyika and also the first president of Tanganyika and later, in 1964, the first president of the United Republic of Tanzania.

Nyerere was one of the most respected African freedom fighters, politicians, and philosophers in Tanzania. He advocated several philosophical ideas, having a vision in education as a significant idea for building a strong society and civilized men:

• Socialism and self-reliance.
• Education philosophy.
• The Ujamaa philosophy (familyhood and brotherhood).

Socialism and Ujamaa philosophy

• Members have equal rights and opportunities.
• All members can have peace and justice.
• People have to work cooperatively and responsibly in their organized village (Ujamaa village).
• Humanness was more valued than wealth in the Ujamaa philosophy.

NYERERE’S IDEAS ON EDUCATION FOR SELF-RELIANCE

• Education is a tool for mental liberation and is to work for the common good to promote quality.
• Education should address reality in life.
• Education should produce planners, organizers of activities, and decision-makers in society.
• Education should produce and integrate all productive work or duties.
• Education and work should give meaningful experience and accurate practice.
• Education should give confidence and critical reasoning to learners.
• Primary education should be a complete system to allow productivity.
• Primary education students should begin at the age of 7 to allow productivity as they leave school.
• Education should move people from ignorance and impact the spirit of desire for change.
• Adult education should be provided to people to rescue them.

PRINCIPLES OF TANZANIA PHILOSOPHY

(Socialism and self-reliance)

Tanzania, living and believing in socialism and self-reliance, is guided by the principles of peace, unity, work, love, and equality.

i. PEACE: The absence of violence and chaos in society due to factors like undemocratic or dictatorial government, injustice, and inequality. Peace is promoted by observing democratic principles like tolerance and human rights but is destroyed by corruption, mismanagement of state resources, uneven consideration of social needs, and intensive social stratification.

ii. LOVE: The feeling of devotion to something or someone; the state of being concerned for someone intrinsically. Love is the root of patriotism in the country, e.g., loving the wealth of the state and its proper utilization.

iii. UNITY: The sense of togetherness of people in all they do for their betterment. Unity develops justice and equality, removing tribalism, regionalism, and social classes.

iv. WORK: The legal use of physical power and labor in doing legal activities for personal development, which benefits society and the state at large. Every individual must work for their own betterment and survival.

v. EQUALITY: All people are considered equal, regarded, and treated equally. Equality promotes togetherness and cooperation in work for improved development pressure.

RELIGION

MEANING AND NATURE OF RELIGION

Religion is a set of beliefs, faith, and practices centered upon a specific supernatural power, i.e., God.

These practices, beliefs, and faith are guided by certain principles of worshiping God or gods, prayers, and rituals. Religions are therefore composed of common aspects such as justice, devotion to God, respect, tolerance, faith, obedience, peace, and proper morals.

TERMINOLOGIES IN RELIGION

• DEITY OR DEISM: Another term for God, while Deism is the system of naming God in different ways.
• MONOTHEISM: The belief in one God or the existence of one God.
• ANTHEISM: The faith or system opposing the existence of God. They believe in other things such as the sun, moon, or things with natural strength.
• POLYTHEISM: The belief in many gods. They believe in the existence of several gods, with one super God termed Henotheist or Henotheister.
• ANIMISM: The belief that people worship nature to have superior power.

RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

The world consists of religions classified according to the number of adherents and their faith. Religions can be seen in the categories of:

1. Abrahamic Religions
2. Non-Abrahamic Religions

THE ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

This category includes religious beliefs developed by the descendants of Abraham, including Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.

Analysis of Abrahamic Religions

• Christians – 2.2 billion adherents.
• Islamic – 1.6 billion adherents.
• Judaism – 14 million adherents.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

• Monotheism (belief in one God).
• Conversion of non-believers.
• Conformity to the seven-day cycle.
• Trust in holy scriptures, e.g., Bible (Christians), Qur’an (Islamic), Tanakh (Judaism).
• Belief in resurrection of the dead.
• Final judgment.
• Divine revelation.
• Common stories.
• Belief in the kingdom of God on earth.

THE NON-ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

These religions have different forms of beliefs and characteristics from the Abrahamic religions. These include Hinduism, Shinto, Confucianism, Buddhism, Satanism, etc.

Their different beliefs include:

• Belief in multiple gods.
• No final judgment day.
• No resurrection of the dead.
• No specific days for worship, etc.

N.B: The non-Abrahamic religions now include other new forms of religions existing in opposition to the old forms of beliefs.

RELIGION AND GOVERNMENT

Religious ideologies and their philosophies in states are considered differently according to the nature of the state and its administration. Some states combine religious ideologies in state administration (non-secular states), while others separate religion from state administration (secular states).

SECULARISM / SECULAR STATES

A secular state or political system separates religion from state affairs. In this system, the state does not consider religion as part of administration.

In secular states, individuals are free to perform their religious duties without interference from the state’s political system.

ADVANTAGES

• The system allows social tolerance.
• Existence and exercise of human rights.
• Good grounds for employment.
• It is a unit of peace and harmony.
• Facilitates educating people.
• Strong interstate cooperation.

NON-SECULARISM STATES

This system combines state religion and politics as part of administration for people and the state.

In this system, the state controls and interferes with all religion and state welfare. Religion and politics are integrated, e.g., Algeria and England.

ADVANTAGES

• The system protects the doctrine of the state’s ideology.
• It helps in softening people’s minds to be ruled.
• It creates room for unity and cooperation.
• The system promotes morals and respect for the state’s authority.
• It helps in the provision of social services equally by the government to its people.
• Promotes national identity, e.g., Arabic countries.
• It strengthens the philosophy of the given religion.

DISADVANTAGES

• There is no freedom of worship.
• There is interference of the government in religion and personal issues (welfare).
• It distorts reasoning capability.
• It involves dictatorship and administration.
• Leads to inferiority complex among believers.
• Easy violence due to the appearance of some classes.
• Poor interstate cooperation.

THE ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF RELIGIONS IN SOCIETY

Religion has great influence on society. Its functions can be seen through social, political, and economic life.

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS / ROLES

(i) Provision of education

Many primary, secondary schools, colleges, and universities belong to Islamic and Christian religions. For example, St. Augustine University, Tumaini University, St. John University of Tanzania, and Morogoro Islamic University.

(ii) Defending the moral quality of society

Religion is a builder and defender of the moral quality of society.

(iii) Provision of health services

Through building hospitals, dispensaries, and health centers. Examples include Bugando, KCMC, and Hindumandal.

(iv) Maintenance of law and order (obedience), thus minimizing crimes (immoralities) in society.

(v) Protection of human rights in society

It strengthens equality through scriptures which say all people are equal before God.

(vi) Enhancing economic development

Through encouraging people to work hard. E.g., “If anyone will not work, let him not eat.” (2 Thessalonians 3:10)

Political roles / Functions

• Religious leaders give advice to political leaders on different issues, e.g., corruption.
• Religious leaders provide critical reflection on policies and public behaviors of leaders and different interest groups in society.
• Religion, through leaders, defends the common good, the dignity of human beings, points out evil in society, and reminds leaders to serve others and not themselves.
• In religious states, religion is integrated into state administration. E.g., Islamic Sharia is used as the state ideology in Saudi Arabia.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE IN SOCIETY

Religious tolerance is the peaceful existence and willingness of religions to coexist in the state. Everyone has the responsibility of respecting the beliefs of other people.

Religious groups must practice positive tolerance for others and for other religious groups. This necessitates freedom of worship, which is considered one of the basic human rights guaranteed in most national constitutions.

FREEDOM OF WORSHIP

It is the right of a person to follow or not to follow a religion. This right includes freedom to change religion or freedom to worship in the community alone or with others, publicly or privately.

CHAPTER QUESTION REVISION

1. “Philosophy has more than two branches.” Discuss.
2. Account for principles, obstacles, and failures of education or self-reliance as advocated by Mwalimu J. K. Nyerere on education in Tanzania.
3. Discuss socialist ideas and show how they can facilitate or hinder social and economic development in Tanzania.
4. To what extent have the ideas of Aristotle and Plato influenced social and economic development in Tanzania?
5. Why is religious tolerance important to a country like Tanzania?
6. Compare secular and non-secular states.
7. Outline the main political ideas of J. K. Nyerere and their impact on the development process in Tanzania.
8. What must be done to advance Nkrumah and J. K. Nyerere’s dream of a United Africa?
9. Explain why people worship in religion.
10. What is the role of religion in politics and social development in Tanzania?