GENERAL STUDIES As LEVEL(FORM FIVE) NOTES – DEMOCRATIC PROCESS AND PRACTICES.

DEMOCRATIC PROCESS AND PRACTICES.

The meaning of the concept

The term “democracy,” even in a purely descriptive sense, means different things to different people. Much has been debated on what democracy and democratic values are. Since Aristotle formulated the phenomenon called “democracy,” many philosophers have meditated and written about it, resulting in much misunderstanding of its meaning over the years. This confusion led George Bernard Shaw, as far back as 1948, to propose that “in order to eradicate misunderstanding and confusion about the meaning of democracy, the leading scholars and thinkers of the world be convened and the issue be settled once and for all.” Up to this material time, however, such a postulation has not yet been realized.

Democracy is generally taken to mean “a system of government and leadership in which the authority or power belongs to the people.”

Historical development of democracy

Democracy originated in ancient Greece, where people exercised power directly in the government. They made decisions and expressed opinions while directly participating in the government.

The word “democracy” is derived from two Greek words: “Demos,” meaning “People,” and “Kratos,” meaning “Power.”

Democracy thus can be defined as the power of the people or power in the hands of the people.

One weakness of ancient Greek democracy was that slaves and women were not allowed to participate in discussions; only free-born citizens took advantage of the system.

The city-state population was small so that citizens could know one another and assemble to make binding decisions on the conduct of their lives.

The act of assembling to make decisions through popular vote was an act of democracy. This kind of democracy is possible only within small social entities such as small towns, villages, families, etc. At the national level, it is a dream because it is impossible to assemble the entire nation to make unanimous public decisions.

Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as government of the people, for the people, and by the people.

“Government of the people” means that the people are sovereign and that the government derives all its power and authority from the hands of the people.

“Government by the people” means that the system of government, leadership, and supreme power belongs to the people.

From these concepts, one can say that in a democratic state, people give their consent to their representatives who rule on their behalf.

Types of Democracy

There are two major types of democracy.

1. Pure/Direct democracy

It is a type of democracy which involves direct participation of all adult citizens in making public decisions. This is only possible when the population is small. The city-state of Athens was the first historical social democratic entity to practice direct democracy. It only had a population of 5,000–6,000 citizens. The term ‘democracy’ was originally formulated by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) within the context of local government, while he was researching the political process in 158 Greek cities in public meetings on matters concerning the government and administration of their cities to discuss matters of general interest, present proposals on such matters, and participate in decision-making. Hence, this is what later came to be understood as direct or participatory democracy.

Characteristics of Direct democracy

• It allows the highest level of participation.
• It works best in communities where citizens have a common view of their interests and goals, for example, clans, tribes, village associations.
• It is possible in societies with freedom to make their own decisions.
• It is possible in societies with homogeneity among members, e.g., common ancestry.
• It can work with knowledgeable and well-informed people who can make the right choices and decisions.

Advantages of Direct Democracy

• Every person has a chance to express his/her feelings and views about particular programs.
• It provides quick and immediate answers to people. Satisfaction is immediate because questions are answered directly.
• Direct democracy enables people to think and provide their opinions immediately to the government.
• It helps representatives, such as members of parliament, to gather information from their constituencies to present before the national assembly.
• It has been advantageous in making and discussing by-laws in villages, hamlets, and wards.

Disadvantages of Direct Democracy

• It cannot be applied in areas where the population is very high because people cannot assemble together comfortably.
• It is not easy to reach consensus on matters discussed because every person argues according to his/her interests.
• There is a possibility of conflict and misunderstanding as everyone demands their opinions be considered.
• It wastes time for most people because meetings cause them to leave their productive activities unattended.
• Not all people attend and participate fully in meetings; many attend but only a few participate fully in discussions.
• Some people are unable to express themselves before the masses, possibly missing valuable ideas.

2. Indirect/Representative democracy (Liberal/Bourgeois democracy)

It is a type of democracy whereby citizens elect representatives who will work on their behalf, for example, members of parliament, local councilors, president, etc.

This type of democracy originated in Europe where capitalists fought and won freedom from landowners. That is why it is called liberal/bourgeois democracy because it originated from the capitalists.

Characteristics of Indirect democracy

• Presence of constitution: Indirect democracy has a constitution as a body of principle laws through which the state is governed.
• Separation of power: The authority and power of the state is divided into three branches of government, namely the executive, judiciary, and legislature.
• Bill of rights for citizens against the abuse of power by government officials and leaders.
• The rule of law: The country is governed by laws, and nobody is above the law. The law must ensure public peace and order through settling disputes peacefully.
• Multipartism: Many political parties play an important role in the government.
• Basically, all adults have the right to vote or be voted for in elections.

Limitations/Weaknesses of Indirect Democracy

• Voter apathy: Especially among disadvantaged people who don’t participate or have influence in elections.
• Passive citizens: Some people are not well informed on civic issues and responsibilities.
• Dependency: Following a group or leader uncritically, reducing the value of outsiders and avoiding disagreement. This behavior undermines democracy because it does not acknowledge equality.
• Lack of economic democracy: Since only a minority holds a great percentage of wealth, there is no political equality.
• Democracy is not yet extended to many other civic institutions, for example, the church.

Categories of Representative Democracy

There are three categories of democracy under which representative democracy is practiced, namely:

(a) Presidential democracy: A system of government in which supreme power (presidency) is held by a representative through a popular vote as the head of state and leads all other ministers. Some republics have separate leadership status for the president as head of state and the prime minister as head of government, such as India.

(b) Parliamentary democracy: In this system, voters select members of parliament/congress, which then selects the head of the executive government, often the leader of the majority in parliament who forms the government. If he/she loses support and a vote of no confidence is passed by the majority in parliament, he/she must resign, and a new prime minister is elected by parliament to form a new government. For example, France.

• Constitutional monarchy: A government system elected by the people through a general election and headed by the prime minister. The king/queen is the head of state who comes to power through inheritance but is simply a symbol of unity and has no real power. It is generally held that the king reigns but does not govern. Examples include the UK, Sweden, Japan, and Denmark.

(c) Mixed representative democracy: A mixture of parliamentary and presidential democracies where the people elect the president, but members of parliament elect the prime minister. Example: France.

Principles/Features/Signposts of Democracy

In any democratic regime, there are ideas that most people believe are necessary for democracy to succeed. The following are some of those principles:

1. Existence of various mass media: There should be various mass media which are not monopolistically owned by the government or any other group and which give accurate information.
2. Equality: Equal rights and opportunities for all people. No racial, religious, ethnic, or sex discrimination.
3. Citizen participation: Every citizen participates fully in making decisions in the country, for example, standing for elections, voting, being informed, protesting, debating issues, etc. This system of participation checks the government from abuse of power.
4. Political tolerance: There should be political tolerance between minority parties and majority ideas.
5. Free and fair elections: There should be no threats to citizens, no corruption, and elections should be regular.
6. Accountability: Government officials and leaders must be accountable to the people; that is, they should work for the interest of the people.
7. Transparency in government: People must be aware of what is happening in the country through meetings, mass media, press, etc. Also, criticisms must be taken into account.
8. Multipartism: More than one party must participate in elections and play its role in government to provide different viewpoints and issues.
9. Human rights: These are values that reflect respect for human life and dignity. Citizens have freedom of opinion, worship, speech, writing, meeting, and associating with fellow citizens provided they uphold the constitution and abide by the laws of the land.
10. Inclusion of bill of rights in the constitution: A bill of rights is a list of rights and freedoms guaranteed to all people in the country.
11. Control of abuse of power: In democratic governments, officials are prevented from abusing their powers, most notably corruption.
12. The rule of law: In a democratic government, no one is above the law; everyone should obey the law, i.e., both governors and the governed.
13. Economic freedom: The government allows private individuals or associations and agencies to own property. Thus, people are free to choose and join different trade unions.
14. Sovereignty: The government has the freedom to decide and execute domestic and foreign policies without interference from another country. Thus, a neo-colony cannot practice democracy; only a sovereign country can.
15. Separation of powers: The authority and powers of the state should be divided into three branches of government: the executive, the legislature (parliament), and the judiciary (court), so that it becomes impossible for any one branch to monopolize state authority and power to the detriment of democratic norms and processes.

Importance/Advantages of Democracy

1. Accountability and good governance: Democracy obliges government officials to refrain from misuse of power and become accountable to the people for their actions, ensuring good governance.
2. Equality and rights: In a democratic society, all people are considered equally free, although they may differ in intelligence, property, health, etc. They have equal opportunities to participate in government decisions and elections, guaranteeing peace and harmony.
3. Promotion of good interests: Democracy encourages people to develop cooperative habits of working together and tolerance of differing views.
4. Self-government: People are more likely to accept laws, taxes, and obligations if they feel they have played a part in making decisions.
5. Democracy ensures the choosing of useful and good leaders who represent the voters.
6. Decisions of the majority are likely to be right for their common good because they have been collectively discussed rather than made by a single person or minority.

Shortcomings/Weaknesses of Democracy

1. It is normally cumbersome and costly: Democracy may be slow and costly to make decisions. For instance, a referendum may have to be called to approve an international agreement or constitutional changes.
2. Unfairness: The fact that a decision has been approved by the majority does not mean it is always right. A mob can easily mislead itself even on issues of national interest.
3. Need for literacy: Democracy does not work in illiterate societies because illiterate people don’t know the limits of those in power. They may make very wrong choices and decisions under the guise of democracy.
4. Delegation of power: Democracy allows delegation of power by the people. After the election, voters lose control over their representatives.
5. Getting untrained representatives: Democracy may result in inefficient representatives who may neither be skilled nor trained, making them incapable of dealing with technical issues and contributing poorly.

The Role of Government in the Democratic Process

• Providing civic education to citizens. Qualified citizens should be encouraged to participate in the election process and policymaking.
• Inclusion of bill of rights in the constitution. This ensures the right of personal liberty and equality before the law, freedom of movement, conscience and expression, and protection against degrading treatment.
• Enhancing freedom of the press. This aims at providing freedom of opinion. People should be able to express their views and find out what is happening in their communities and other nations by using both state-owned and privately owned mass media.
• Ensuring a conducive environment for civil society organizations and promoting people’s participation through them.

Local Government in Tanzania

Meaning

Local governments are political and administrative agents through which development of towns, districts, municipalities, and cities can be obtained.

Short history of the development of Local Authorities in Tanzania

The local government system in Tanzania has had a long and chequered history. The early forms of local self-government were based on chiefdoms and sub-chiefdoms, and following colonization, the British local government model of indirect rule was adopted. In the post-colonial era, the local government system, starved of resources, was unable to deliver adequate services to the people. In 1972, local governments were abolished in favor of a more centralized system of government (through decentralization by deconcentration). Central government and ministries were put in charge of the administration of basic government services at the local level, including primary education and health care. However, the delivery of public services deteriorated under this system of deconcentration, and local government was reintroduced by the Local Government Acts of 1982.

While Local Government Authorities were technically reintroduced in mainland Tanzania in 1984, the system was a top-down modality, and local governments were tightly constrained by central government. In addition, local government had lost many of its senior management and technical staff.

Central government ministries, through their regional administrative offices, were delegated strong power to continue to direct almost all aspects of local government affairs.

Structure of Local Government System in Tanzania

The structure of the local government system can be analyzed by showing the following interlinked system. Key structures are briefly shown. A detailed analysis of the structure showing how local government is linked to the Central Government is also presented.

1. Prime Minister’s Office

Responsibilities of the Prime Minister’s Office include the following:

• To guide and oversee the delivery of primary education by Local Government Authorities (LGAs).
• To provide strategic leadership and technical support to council education offices.
• To support and build the capacity of Regional Secretariat (RS) and Local Government Authorities.
• To ensure that councils prepare consolidated education development plans that conform to government development goals, education policy, and assurance standards.
• To consolidate council plans and budgets into national plans of action which will provide the basis for the approval and transfer of funds.
• To collaborate with the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training to monitor, review, and evaluate outputs and outcomes of education plans.
• To communicate education information to all system levels and interested stakeholders.
• To produce regular financial and physical reports to the Ministry of Finance.
• To collaborate with other agencies in the education sector in planning and specifying national service delivery standards for primary education.
• To technically support Local Government Authorities in planning and implementing primary education programs in accordance with national service delivery standards.

1. Regional Secretariats

The responsibilities of the Regional Secretariat include the following:

• To carry out periodic internal audits in the Local Government Authorities (LGAs) and schools to ensure that performance targets are being met.
• To guide, coordinate, and monitor the delivery of social services.
• To provide technical support to council offices.

1. Urban Authorities

Town councils, municipal councils, and city councils fall under urban authorities. Currently, there are twenty-five urban councils (i.e., five City Councils, seventeen Municipal Councils, and four Town Councils).

1. City Council

Currently, there are five cities: Dar es Salaam, Mwanza, Arusha, Tanga, and Mbeya. Members of the city council are as follows:

Structure of the City Council

• Elect members (Councilors), one from each ward in the city.
• Members of parliament representing parliamentary constituencies in the city.
• National members of parliament (Women) residing in a particular city.
• Not more than six other members appointed by the Minister responsible for local governments from among the city residents.