ENGLISH LANGUAGE O LEVEL(FORM THREE) NOTES – WRITING USING APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE CONTENT AND STYLE

Writing Using Appropriate Language, Content, and Style

The Meaning of Composition

This topic covers compositions that engage pupils or students in writing using appropriate language, content, and style. Composition refers to a short text written at school, college, or similar settings as part of an exercise. In composition, a student or pupil generates their own ideas to explain, narrate, argue or persuade, or describe something or an event. Composition includes writing essays, poems, stories, songs, letters, and more.

Types of Composition

There are various types of compositions, including:

• Narrative compositions
• Expository compositions
• Descriptive compositions
• Argumentative or persuasive compositions

Narrative Compositions

Narrative compositions refer to stories about different events. These stories may be personal, historical, or fictional. Personal stories focus on important events in the author’s life. Historical stories capture moments from the past and present them in story format. Fictional stories use imagination and figurative language to produce a short story.

A narrative composition tells a story. When writing a narrative about an event, include the following:

• When did it happen?
• What exactly happened?
• When did the event start?
• How did you learn about the event?
• Did you witness it or were you told about it?
• Were you involved in the event?
• How did the event end?

Basic Elements of Narrative Compositions

Several basic elements should be considered when writing a narrative composition: plot, characters, and setting.

Plot:

A plot is a sequence of events or actions in a story. It includes conflict, which is a problem related to human experience, and resolution, which is the outcome of the conflict. Most plots develop in five stages: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.

1. Exposition: background information about the characters and setting.
2. Rising action: the part that develops the conflict.
3. Climax: the point of highest interest, conflict, or suspense in the story.
4. Falling action: shows what happens to the characters after the climax.
5. Resolution: shows how the conflict is resolved or the problem is solved.

Characters

Characters are animate or inanimate entities that perform roles in literature. Animate things are living beings like people, plants, and animals, while inanimate things are non-living objects like stones, air, wind, soil, and pieces of wood. When inanimate things are given human attributes, they are personified (personification).

Setting

Setting is the time and place in which the events of a narrative occur.

Steps in Writing Narrative Compositions

Steps to follow when writing a narrative composition include finding a story idea, developing characters, setting the scene, communicating a theme, and choosing a point of view.

Finding a Story Idea:

The story should have a conflict, topic, or problem that can be external or internal, intrapersonal or interpersonal, at the level of an individual, group, or society. Story ideas come from everyday life experiences, newspapers, magazines, or books.

Developing Characters:

Assign roles related to their physical descriptions, thoughts, personality traits, actions, and reactions to one another. Include dialogue to let readers witness the characters’ conversations. Use language that reflects the age, background, and personality of each character.

Setting the Scene: Include information about time, place, weather, and historical period. Often, setting affects how characters act.

Communicating a Theme:

The theme is the main idea of a story that the writer conveys through the narrative. One way to express the theme is through the description of the setting and the title.

Choosing a Point of View:

The author decides whether to use first person (I/we), second person (you), or third person (he/she/it/they) narration. In first person, the narrator is a character in the story. In third person, the narrator is an observer of the event.

Expository Composition

An expository composition is a piece of writing or story that gives directions, explains an idea or term, compares one thing to another, or explains how to do something. The purpose is to explain something to the reader or audience.

Types of Expository Composition

Descriptive Composition

Descriptive composition describes events, actions, or phenomena that exist or happened in the past. It tells what a phenomenon is like by giving details of its features or characteristics. A writer can describe colour, size, quality, feeling, smell, taste, sound, speed, or age of someone or something.

For example, one can write an essay describing Kilimanjaro Mountain, Lake Victoria, or the shape of an animal cell.

In writing a descriptive composition, avoid overused modifiers such as good, bad, really, so, and very. Instead, use modifiers like completely, definitely, especially, exceptionally, largely, mostly, notably, oddly, particularly, strikingly, surprisingly, terribly, thoroughly, and unusually.

Also, use precise verbs and words that appeal to sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch to capture the essence of actions.

Argumentative/Persuasive Composition

Argumentative or persuasive composition aims to convince, motivate, argue, or persuade readers to accept, change, or take action on a topic. For example, an essay can persuade readers to join a political party, buy something, vote for a candidate, or use certain medicine to combat malaria or AIDS.

Things to Consider When Writing a Persuasive Composition

Varied Opinions About the Topic: Argue for a point and try to convince readers to support your opinion. Your opinion should be disputable or argumentative. If it cannot arouse argument, it is worthless. For example, it would be pointless to argue that the sun rises in the west and sets in the east because almost everyone would disagree. However, you might argue a theory stating that the sun accounts for 90% of desertification.

Audience Receptiveness: Consider your audience’s opinions, age, education level, sex, and problems when choosing a topic. For example, topics like HIV/AIDS, importance of education, pregnancy in primary schools, floods, and disease outbreaks are suitable.

Sufficient Evidence: Provide enough evidence to support your arguments. Without sufficient support, your argument will fail.

Use Inductive and Deductive Reasoning: Reasoning is important in providing arguments. It can be inductive or deductive.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning proceeds logically from limited facts to a general conclusion, reasoning from specific aspects to general aspects.

Creative Writing

The Meaning of Creative Writing

Creative writing involves the figurative use of language in an artistic way. It goes hand in hand with competence and performance in a language. Creative writing becomes more effective when one uses literary devices and skills. Literary devices are tools that make a story or any piece of writing figurative.

Some common literary devices include personification, hyperbole, simile, rhetorical questions, irony, sarcasm, tautology, onomatopoeia, alliteration, reiteration, assonance, consonance, proverbs, and riddles. (For more details about literary devices, refer to Chapter Four.)

Figures of Speech

Simile

Used to compare two different things having a common quality.

Examples:

(i) Janneth is as beautiful as a rose.

(ii) He is running very fast like a horse.

Metaphor

Used to compare two different things treated as one. Also called an implied simile without using words such as ‘like’, ‘so’, or ‘as’.

Examples:

(i) Education is a key to life.

(ii) An elephant is the king of the forest.

Allegory

A form of extended metaphor in which objects, persons, and actions in narrative, either prose or verse, are equated with meanings outside the narrative itself.

Personification

Giving inanimate or lifeless objects human qualities such as speaking, walking, or thinking.

Examples:

(i) Hyena requested Hare to give him some water.

(ii) The sun sheds his beams on all people.

Hyperbole

Used to exaggerate facts.

Examples:

(i) I thanked him a hundred times.

(ii) He is as tall as the P.P.F tower.

Euphemism

Used to say unpleasant things in a pleasant manner.

Examples:

(i) ‘I am going to the comfort station’ instead of ‘I am going to the toilet’.

(ii) ‘My mother has passed away’ instead of ‘My mother has died’.

Irony

Used to express the opposite meaning from the real meaning.

Examples:

(i) You are very beautiful (to someone who does not look beautiful).

(ii) You have scored very high (to a student who has failed a test).

Rhetorical Questions

Questions that do not need an answer because the answer is known to the person asking.

Examples:

(i) Will there be a tomorrow?

(ii) Now! Why don’t you act?

Alliteration

Repetition of identical consonant sounds at the beginning of a word or stressed syllable within a word in a verse. Example: after, life, fit, fever.

Assonance

Repetition of similar vowel sounds in stressed syllables that end with different consonant sounds.

Examples:

(i) Lake and fate.

(ii) Clean and cream.

(iii) Side and wide.

Archaism (Barbarism)

Using different languages in conversation or writing. Words not acceptable in the language used because they are foreign. This term refers to borrowed words.

Litotes

A form of understatement affirming something by stating the negative of its opposite.

Examples:

(i) ‘She was not unmindful’ meaning ‘she gave careful attention’.

(ii) ‘It wasn’t easy’ meaning ‘It was very difficult’.

Onomatopoeic

Formation of words by imitating sounds associated with the object. Examples: “hiss”, “buzz”, “whir”, “sizzle”.

Satire

A literary manner blending a critical attitude with humour and wit to improve human institutions or humanity. Example: “It seems there is no salon nearby. Your hairs are very cooperative.”

Sarcasm

Bitterness that may not be ironical but is bitter and ill-natured, aiming to inflict pain.

Examples:

(i) If you are the son of God, rescue yourself from the cross.

(ii) If you are a mechanical engineer, tell us the problem of this car.

Humour

Funny and amusing, including comic speech, behaviour, or appearance.

Example:

Wife: I have been watching you for almost half an hour concentrating on our marriage contract certificate. What is wrong?

Husband: Nothing wrong! But I am just trying to find out the expiry date of our marriage contract.

Wit

Clever and humorous expression of ideas that raises awareness.

Example:

Oh! Why didn’t you tell me those mosquitoes are your beloved friends? I see you visiting the pharmacy daily. But I have two mosquito nets. Can I give you one to dress your bed to attract more mosquitoes?

Sympathy (Sympathetic)

Feeling pity and sorrow; capacity for sharing others’ feelings. Example: “I really recognize your current situation. It is God’s work. Let us pray for her soul so that God may rest her in eternal life.”

Climax

A figure of speech expressing a series of ideas in increasing importance.

Examples:

(i) I heard, I followed, and I won.

(ii) Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them.

(iii) I came, I saw, I conquered.

Litotes

Used to convey an affirmative meaning by employing a negative word.

Examples:

(i) ‘The car is not in bad condition’ meaning ‘the car is in good condition’.

(ii) ‘Elizabeth is not a lazy woman’ meaning ‘Elizabeth is a hard worker.’

(iii) ‘Tanzania is not a mono-party system nation’ meaning ‘Tanzania is a multiparty system nation.’

Ellipsis

The omission of words or letters to avoid repetition in sentences.

Thesis

An attitude or position on a problem taken by a writer or speaker with the purpose of providing or supporting it.

Contrast

A device by which one element is opposed to another for emphasis or clarity.

Antithesis

A figure of speech characterized by strongly contrasting words, clauses, sentences, or ideas.

Examples:

(i) Man proposes and God disposes.

(ii) To err is human but to forgive is divine.

Allusion

A figure of speech making brief reference to a historical or literary figure, event, or object.

Ambiguity

The expression of an idea in language that gives more than one meaning and leaves uncertainty as to the intended significance. Examples: words like bank, socket.

Tautology

The use of superfluous, repetitious words. Unlike repetition for clarity or emphasis, tautology repeats the idea without adding force or clarity.

Exclamation

A figure of speech used to express an idea in the form of an exclamation.

Examples:

(i) What a piece of work is man!

(ii) What fall was there my countryman!

(iii) How sweet is the bed that is slept by the queen!

Language Patterns

Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences can be grouped into three types:

• Type 1: Conditional (likely)
• Type 2: Conditional (unlikely)
• Type 3: Conditional (impossible)

Type 1

Expresses conditions likely to be fulfilled.

Examples:

1. If I eat too much, I will get stomachache.
2. I will send her an invitation if I find her address.
3. Unless I get the ball, I won’t play basketball.
4. The harvest will fail unless it rains.

Formed by two clauses:

• Use present simple in the if clause and will in the main clause.
• The main clause or the if clause can come first.
• If the if clause is first, use a comma before the main clause.

Type 2

• Suggests a situation that is unlikely, impossible, imaginary, or hypothetical.
• Use simple past tense in the if clause and would or conditional tense in the main clause.
• Examples:
• If I were an angel, I would lead all carjackers to a trap.
• He would go to London if he spoke English.
• If I played crunk, I should be a soldier.
• If I ran fast, I would be the winner.

Type 3

Also called impossible conditionals, made up of two clauses.

Used to talk about unreal situations in the past or possible consequences of something that did not happen.

Use past perfect in the if clause (if + had) and conditional perfect (would have) in the main clause.

Examples:

• I would have given up if you had not encouraged me.
• If you had not encouraged me, I would have given up.
• If he had gone, he could have called me.
• If I had come, I might have been sick.

Prepositions of Movement

Examples:

a) The children came from the village the other day.

b) The young came by daladala to Arusha.

c) Some others came all the way on motorbike.

d) They stopped at marishoni for lunch.

“By” and “on” indicate means of travel, while “to” indicates movement toward a destination. “From” indicates movement from a place of origin. “At” indicates a point along the journey.

Exercise

Fill in the blanks using from, to, at, or by:

1) Let us go ___________ the village this weekend.

2) Shall we drive _____________ Mwama or shall we go ____________ air?

3) She called to say she arrived ___________ Nairobi last night.

4) What time did you reach _____________ Tanga?

5) The old lady stood ______________ the bus stop for two hours.

Language Patterns

1. How to send a text message (SMS) using a cell phone:

a) Ensure you have credit in your phone.

b) Go to write message and type your message.

c) Look for the number of the person you want to send a message to.

d) Send the message you have written by pressing send on the phone.

Gender Neutral Language

When using English, avoid discriminating against men or women. Language that excludes one sex is gender insensitive. This occurs in the use of nouns and pronouns.

a) If you lose your way in the city, it is safe to speak to the policeman.

b) The response of the fireman was slow, so the fire destroyed everything in the shop.

c) The fireman pays the workmen every Saturday.

The underlined nouns suggest all police officers, firefighters, and supervisors are men. The nouns police officer, firefighter, and supervisor should be used instead because they are gender neutral.

Exercise

Provide the gender neutral equivalent for each of the following nouns:

a) Businessman

b) Headmaster

c) Mankind

d) Spokesman

e) Chairman

f) Workmen

Two Past Sentence Connectors

These are conjunctions used in pairs. Usually, some sentence material comes between the two parts. They are sometimes called correlatives.

Either – Or

Use Either —– or to give a choice between two alternatives.

Examples:

1. Either the teachers or the prefects will supervise the preparations.
2. You can either do your homework now or wash the clothes.
3. Either you can join the army or the prison services.
4. She is either a teacher or a dancer.

Neither——-Nor

Use to disqualify or reject two available options.

1. Neither the watchman nor the residents were hurt in the attack.
2. Neither the author nor the editor knows what to do with the manuscript.

Not Only——–But Also and Both————And

Use to relate two things or actions where one is an addition to the other.

Example:

1. He wrote a song. He sang it.

He not only wrote a song but also sang it.

1. Shufaa can not only compose a play but also act upon it.
2. He needs both clothing and food.

So—————- That / Such ———-That

Example:

1) Amina was fat. She could not run.

Amina was fat so that she could not run.

Hardly —————When

1. Hardly had Abdul sat down when his rival stood to speak.
2. Hardly had I started to close my eyes when the bell rang.

Scarcely ——————When

1. Abul had scarcely sat down when his rival stood to speak.
2. I had scarcely closed my eyes when the bell rang.

No Sooner Had——————–Than

Examples:

1) No sooner had Juma sat down than his rival stood to speak.

2) No sooner had he arrived than he left.

Use No sooner———than, Hardly——when, and Scarcely—-when to suggest one event happens very soon after another.

Simple Subordinating Conjunctions

Consist of one word, e.g., although, since, that, unless, until, while, whereas, whereby, as, because, however.

Although / Though

The weather is bad, we are enjoying ourselves.

Although / though the weather is bad, we are enjoying ourselves.

However

The weather was bad, however, we enjoyed the games.

Since

Since it was raining, I took a taxi.

Because

Because it was raining, I took a taxi.

While

While he stood there, he saw two women fighting.

When

When he comes, tell him I have gone to Tanga.

For

I have lived here for five years.

Complex Subordinating Conjunctions

Consist of more than one word.

Examples: in order that, such that, except that, so that, as far as, as long as, as soon as, in so far, in case, as if, as though, sooner than.

Possessive Nouns

A possessive noun shows ownership and is formed by adding an apostrophe and ‘s’ to the noun, or only an apostrophe if the word ends with s. The possessive form shows that the person named owns something.

Examples:

• One girl’s bicycle was pink. (The bicycle belongs to the girl)

For possessive plural nouns ending with ‘s’ like boys or houses, the apostrophe follows the plural (s) and the possessive ‘s’ is left out.

Examples:

1) This is a boys’ school.

2) The teachers’ visitors are here.

3) Please collect the student’s assignments before lunch.