What is Defragmentation?
As you start to create and delete files and applications on your computer the hard drive will become fragmented. This means that your data is split into chunks and stored in different areas of the hard disk. The more fragmented your drive is, the less efficient your computer operates. Defragmentation consolidates the separate chunks, frees up disk space and speeds up your computer. In simple terms imagine your hard drive as a bunch of little containers (with empty space being empty containers). An unfragmented hard drive would have all of the containers for programs or files next to each other like this:
Now what happens when you delete a program or file? An empty space will result and your hard drive
will look like this:
Next time a file is written to the drive it will be placed in the first empty space. If the file is larger than the empty space it will be split up with part being written to the empty space and the next part be written to the next free space and so on.
Eventually files will be split up into multiple sections, causing files to be located in various containers throughout the entire drive. The result is a hard drive looking something like this:
To defragment is to take all of the fragmented pieces and put them back in order. Windows comes with a defragmenting program. You can also get third party software such as Norton Utilities which comes with a defragmenting program.
How To Defrag Your Hard drive?
The following steps list how to defragment your hard drive. You should defragment your hard drive every few months, if you often add and/or remove programs and files you should defragment more often.
Note:
1. You should stop using your computer while you are defragmenting the drive. It is possible to continue to use your computer but your computer will operate slower and the defragmentation process restarts if the contents of the hard drive changes.
2. You should stop all programs running including your screen saver.
3. The defragmentation program can take a long time to run. It is recommended that you run this program overnight or when you do not need to use the computer for a few hours.
Windows 95/98/98SE/Millennium
To start the Disk Defragmenter program in MS Windows 95/98/98SE or Me, use the following steps:
1. Click on the Start button, then move to the Programs, select Accessories, then System Tools, and then click on the Disk Defragmenter.
2. Select the drive you wish to defragment (usually Drive c), click OK, and then click Yes. Wait for the defragmentation tool to finish (this may take a long time).
Windows 2000/XP
1. To open Disk Defragmenter, click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories then System Tools, and click Disk Defragmenter.
2. Click the drive you want to defragment, click the Defragment button and then wait for the defragmentation tool to finish (this may take a long time).
3. If you have any problems running the derangement you may need to be logged on as an administrator or a member of the Administrators group.
Windows NT
Windows NT does not have a built in defragmentation tool. Third party defragmentation tools are available.
6. Hard Disk Error Checking
As all your data is kept on the computers hard drive, it is essential that you regular check the drive for errors. To perform this task, first open up My Computer, select the drive you wish to check and press the right mouse button. Select Properties and then the Tools tab, press the button to start the Error Checking program.
7. Virus Checker
With the amount of computer viruses around these days it is absolutely essential that you have a virus checker (such as Norton Antivirus) installed on your machine. Having a virus checker installed on your system is not enough though as it needs to be kept up to date and your computer regularly scanned for viruses. As the various virus checking programs work in a variety of different ways consult the software manual or get a expert to assist you with updating the program and performing regular disk scans.
8. Uninstall Software
As you start to use the computer more and more you will begin to install new programs and applications. A lot of times you will use the program a few times and then either forget about it or realist it doesn’t do what you wanted. The application will then just stay on your machine taking up space and using up resources. It is recommended to regularly check the software installed on your machine and uninstall and programs you no longer use. To uninstall a program in Windows 9x, 2000 & XP first open up your My Computer icon and then open up the Control Panel icon. An Add or Remove program icon will then be visible, start this program and you will be presented with a list of programs installed on your machine. Scroll through this list and remove any programs you no longer use. If you are unsure of a program leave it and ask a computer professional for advice.
9. Clean Out Your Recycle Bin
When you delete a file or email it doesn’t necessarily delete the file from your hard drive, instead it places it in the “ Recycle Bin” or “Deleted Items” folder for email in Outlook or Outlook Express. This is done so that you can easily recover files or emails you may have accidentally deleted. Over time though the Recycle Bin and Deleted Items folder can become large and the contents need to be purged.
Emptying the Recycle Bin
First check the recycle bin and to see if it doesn’t contain any required files. To see what is in the recycle bin, double click on it to open it up and scroll through the list of files to see what it contains. If you are certain that you do not need any of the files select File and then Empty Recycle Bin. If you are unsure of the files that are in the recycle bin seek assistance before emptying the bin.
Emptying Your Deleted Email
First check the “Deleted Items” folder to see if it doesn’t contain any required emails. To see what the folder contains start Outlook or Outlook Express and click on the “Deleted Items” folder and scroll through the list of emails to see what it contains. If you are certain that you do not need any of the emails, right click over the top of the “Deleted Items” folder and select Empty Deleted Items. If you are unsure of the emails that are in the “Deleted Items Folder” seek assistance before emptying the folder.
10. Operating System Reinstall
Over time you will install and uninstall various software, apply software and hardware patches, add and remove various bits and pieces of hardware and update system drivers. This will cause your computer system to gather old software programs, drivers and other system files that all contribute to your system running slow, behaving erratically and / or crashing. To remedy this situation contact a professional who can reload your operating system, applications and reset your computer software back to how it was when you first bought your machine.
General Computing Tips
How to Shutdown Your Computer Properly
Always shutdown your computer and any applications you have open properly. Only use the reset button if your computer locks up and you have no other choice. To shut down to Start–>Shutdown–> and choose the option you need; Reset, Shutdown, or Log Off.
The Golden Rule: When all else fails, REBOOT.
If your computer is not responding to the above an application has gone awry and you will need to close off the offending application. To do this press Ctrl+Alt+Del (all at the same time). A Close Program or Task Manager dialog box will appear. Select the task you want to end (or the ones that say they are “not responding”) and select End Task. If this doesn’t work you can reboot the machine
in MS Window 9x by simply pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del twice in succession.
Unknown Emails
Be very, very cautious of emails especially those that contain attachments from unknown senders. Even if you know the sender and you are not expecting an email from them or are unsure what the attachment is, be careful. Use an antivirus program, keep it updated and set it to automatically scan your incoming and outgoing email. If you are unsure get a professional to help you.
Unknown File Downloads
Don’t go around and haphazardly download every program you can. Be sure you know what you are downloading and from where. Not all downloads are bad, but you never know what may show up and some programs may contain a virus or a Trojan horse. Know exactly what you’re downloading and installing to your hard drive beforehand. If you are unsure stop and
get a professional to help you.
get a professional to help you.
Incompatible Hardware and Software
Before purchasing new software or hardware be sure that the product you are buying is compatible with your system. If in doubt write down the specifications of your machine and ask the salesman.
Random Deletion of Files
Do not delete files or applications when you are not sure of what they belong to. You may delete that one file that runs your favorite software or delete that important finance information. If you are unsure, leave the file alone and ask for assistance.
Window s Update
Windows Update is an online extension to MS Windows 98, Me, 2000 and XP (Windows Update is not available in MS Windows 95) that helps you to keep your computer up-to-date. By using Windows Update you can choose the updates to install for your computer’s operating system, software, and hardware. As new content is added regularly to the site you can always download the most recent updates and fixes to protect your computer and keep it running smoothly. Updates that are critical to the operation of your computer are considered a “Critical Update,” and are automatically selected for installation during the scan. These updates are available to help resolve known issues and to protect your computer from known security vulnerabilities. Critical updates should always be downloaded.
Starting Windows Update
MS Windows XP / 2000
In Windows XP Home Edition, you must be logged on as a computer administrator to install components or modify Automatic Updates settings. In Windows XP Professional, you must be logged on as an administrator or a member of the Administrators group. If your computer is connected to a network, network policy settings might also prevent you from completing this procedure.
∙ To start Windows update first connect to the Internet and then open the website:
http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com/
in Internet Explorer (Note: You need Microsoft Internet Explorer v5 or higher, Netscape or other browser do not work).
∙ Once the Windows Update page has loaded, click Scan for updates, your system will then be scanned (this may take a while). Click Yes when prompted by any “Security Warnings” to install any required software or device drivers.
When the scan has completed any Critical Updates will be selected, press Review and Install Critical Updates to download and install them. Otherwise scroll through the list on the left hand side and select any Windows XP / 2000 and/or Driver Updates you wish to install.
MS Windows 98 / Me
First connect to the Internet and then open the website:http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com/ in Internet Explorer (Note: You need Microsoft Internet Explorer v5 or higher, Netscape or other browser do not work). Once the Windows Update page has loaded, click Product Updates, your system will then be scanned (this may take a while, if any Security Warning appear click Yes). When the scan has finished, if there are any critical updates available click Download otherwise scroll through the list and select the updates you to download.
Computer Viruses
What is a virus?
A computer virus is a computer program designed to replicate and spread on its own, preferably without a user’s knowledge. Computer viruses spread by attaching themselves to things such as a computer program, word processing or sprea
dsheet document, disks or email. Email is currently the most prolific way viruses spread. When an infected file is executed the virus starts. Depending upon the type of virus it can stay dormant, waiting to for an event to happen (such as a specific date) or become active straight away. When the virus becomes active it can do a number of things such as:
dsheet document, disks or email. Email is currently the most prolific way viruses spread. When an infected file is executed the virus starts. Depending upon the type of virus it can stay dormant, waiting to for an event to happen (such as a specific date) or become active straight away. When the virus becomes active it can do a number of things such as:
– Delete and / or rename files on your computer.
– Send an email to one person or many people.
The email can contain a predefined message, a copy of one of your emails or even a file on your computer
– Cause your computer not to even switch on or work (by modifying or erasing your BIOS).
– Display a certain message.
– Allow people to hack into your computer.
Computer viruses are increasing at an unprecedented rate. In 1986, there was one known computer virus; three years later, that number had increased to six and by 1990, the total had jumped to 80. By November of that year, viruses were being discovered at the rate of one per week. Today, between 10 and 15 new viruses appear every day. In fact, from December 1998 to October 1999, the total virus count jumped from 20,500 to 42,000. (Update: In March 2001 the antivirus software product, Norton Antivirus protected against 48,755 viruses as of October 2002 this figure jumped to 62,181.)
How do viruses spread?
Computer viruses spread whenever infected diskettes or files are exchanged. This can happen by people exchanging computer disks or viewing email attachments. People often do not know that the file they are sending you is infected so it pays to be wary of any program and email you open.
Why do people write viruses?
There are many reasons why people write computer viruses, some reasons are:
– The thrill of it. Just like an arsonist or a vandal,
people want to see what kind of destruction they can create and if they can get away with it.
– To show off to people and prove to their peers
how smart they are.
– To exploit a weakness in a product.
You do not have to be particularly smart to write a virus as there are many “virus writing kits”
available on the Internet. Using these kits a person can easily change one or more features and
send their creation out onto the Internet via email or spread the virus via other means.
How can you protect yourself from viruses?
1) Have an Antivirus program installed on your computer
2) Regularly scan the computer for viruses (at least once a week).
3) Keep your virus definition files (ie the list of viruses the antivirus knows about and can fix) up to date (at least once a month, more times if possible).
4) Keep updated in regards to the latest security patches for your operating systems and applications.
5) Do not open email attachments that are from people you don’t know especially ones that end in “.vbs”, “.exe”, “.pif”, “.bat” or “.scr”. Even be wary with email from people you do know and trust. If you are not expecting an email from the person and it contains an attachment contact the person before you open the file.
ONLINE virus scan:
Trend micro
Computer Association
F Secure
Downloadable – For DOS
Web Site Blocker
We-Blocker – http://weblocker.fameleads.com/get_weblocker.asp
Spy Ware, AdWare Scanner
Ad-aware
Port Scanner
Sygate
How do I utilize F DISK?
The program that DOS supplies for setting up hard disk partitions is called F DISK, which is believed to? stand for “fixed disk”, an older term for hard disk. F DISK is used only for DOS (FAT) partitioning, and allows the user to perform the following functions:
Create Partitions:
FDISK allows you to create a primary DOS partition or logical DOS volumes. To create a logical DOS volume you must first create an extended DOS partition, since the logical are contained within the extended partition.
Set Active Partition:?
You can use FDISK to set the primary partition on your boot disk active, allowing it to boot. It’s strange that FDISK doesn’t do this automatically when you create the boot primary partition (since there can only be one primary DOS partition anyway), but you must do this manually in many cases. (At least FDISK warns you when no disk is set active, via a message at the bottom of the screen.)
Delete Partitions:?
FDISK will let you delete partitions as well. This is the only way to change the size of a partition in FDISK.? You have to d
elete the old one and create a new one with the new size. If you want to change the size of the primary DOS partition using FDISK you must delete every FAT partition on the disk and start over… annoying, but necessary
elete the old one and create a new one with the new size. If you want to change the size of the primary DOS partition using FDISK you must delete every FAT partition on the disk and start over… annoying, but necessary
Display Partition Information:?
The last option that FDISK gives is to display the partition information for the system. It will first show the primary and extended partitions and then ask you if you want to see the logical drives within the extended partition. In fact, if you want to see this information, you can just do “FDISK /STATUS” from the DOS command line. This will show you the partition information without taking you into FDISK, and therefore, you run no risk of accidentally doing something? you’ll wish you hadn’t.? Which in reality is always a good thing!
Some important points that you should keep in mind when using FDISK:
Be very Careful:
1. With just a few keystrokes, FDISK can wipe out part or all of your hard disk. Generally speaking, don’t use FDISK unless you need to, and make sure you understand what you are doing before you begin.
2. Run It From DOS: Windows 95 allows you to run FDISK direct from the graphical user interface, and even while other applications are open and running. Since FDISK alters critical disk structures at a very low level, running it while files are open and other applications are using the disk is asking for trouble. To be safe, always exit to DOS (“Restart the computer in MS-DOS mode”) before using FDISK (except for using “FDISK /STATUS”, will work safely from within a DOS box in Windows 95/98, remember, you’re not changing anything). FAT32 Support: The version of FDISK that comes with Windows 95 OEM SR2 supports the creation of partitions that use the FAT32 enhanced file system for larger volumes. Some clever person at Microsoft decided not to call it FAT32 however within this program. Instead, when you run FDISK on a system that has Windows 95 OEM SR2 installed, and a hard disk over 512 MB (the minimum for using FAT32), you will receive a message asking you if you want to “enable large disk support”. If you answer “Y” then any new partitions created in that session will be FAT32 partitions. Note: It is often useful to include FDISK as one of the programs on a bootable floppy. This way you can use it when setting up new hard disks. Considering how important it is, FDISK is a rather primitive program. It works, but it’s cryptic and hard to use. Anything you can do in FDISK you can do more flexibly and easily using a third-party program like Partition Magic. FDISK will not allow you to select or change cluster sizes resize partitions, move partitions, etc. Disk’s primary advantage is, of course, that it is free (well, built-in anyway).
Windows NT uses a program called Disk Administrator to handle disk setup tasks. In essence, this is an enhanced version of FDISK that allows you not only to manipulate partitions, but also access some of NT’s unique disk management features like NTFS. I added this because not everyone uses the same operating systems. And things are a handled slightly different, but if they didn’t, everyone would just be using the same thing. That would just be boring.
Before proceeding with installing an operating system (DOS/Windows 9x), the drive must first be partitioned and formatted. A drive/partition will not be assigned a drive letter and can not be formatted until partitioned using FDISK or a similar utility. If the new drive is a second drive, partitioning and formatting can be done within Windows. Go to the DOS Prompt and run FDISK to set up partitions. A second drive can be formatted within Windows by right clicking the drive in My Computer or Windows Explorer and selecting Format. If the new drive is to be the boot drive, then a startup diskette will need to be used (Windows Me requires the distribution CD to build a bootable hard drive). The startup diskette should be included with the operating system or one can be made from within Windows. A Startup disk can be made by going to Start | Settings | Control Panel | Add/Remove Programs | Startup Disk tab. Place the startup diskette into the A: drive and reboot the computer.
FDISK
After configuring the new drive as master or slave and configuring system BIOS for the new drive, boot the system with the startup disk in drive A: At the prompt, type FDISK and .
After the FDISK utility starts, the first screen (if using FAT32 version) should ask if you want to use Large Drive support. If your drive is over 512 MB and you want to make partitions over 2 GB, answer Yes. The next screen should be a menu with either 4 or 5 numbered selections.
FDISK Options
Current Fixed Disk Drive: 1
Choose one of the following options
FDISK
After configuring the new drive as master or slave and configuring system BIOS for the new drive, boot the system with the startup disk in drive A: At the prompt, type FDISK and .
After the FDISK utility starts, the first screen (if using FAT32 version) should ask if you want to use Large Drive support. If your drive is over 512 MB and you want to make partitions over 2 GB, answer Yes. The next screen should be a menu with either 4 or 5 numbered selections.
FDISK Options
Current Fixed Disk Drive: 1
Choose one of the following options
1. Create DOS Partition or Logical DOS drive
2. Set Active Partition
3. Delete partition or Logical DOS drive
4. Display partition information
5. Change current fixed disk drive (Only if more than one drive is present)
Enter Choice [ ]
Option 1 is used to create a Primary DOS partition or an Extended partition and set the partition(s) size. Use Option 2 to set the boot partition as Active (only one partition can be set Active using FDISK). Option 3 is used to delete partitions (Primary DOS, Extended, Non-DOS). Option 4 displays all settings for each partition. Option 5 lets you select which Fixed Disk to partition (maximum of 4 fixed disks with FDISK).
After all configurations are made, use the ESC key to exit the program. Before the drive can be Formatted, the computer will need to be re-booted in order for the new partitions to be given a Drive Letter.
Steps for partitioning a hard drive using FDISK
Option 1 is used to create a Primary DOS partition or an Extended partition and set the partition(s) size. Use Option 2 to set the boot partition as Active (only one partition can be set Active using FDISK). Option 3 is used to delete partitions (Primary DOS, Extended, Non-DOS). Option 4 displays all settings for each partition. Option 5 lets you select which Fixed Disk to partition (maximum of 4 fixed disks with FDISK).
After all configurations are made, use the ESC key to exit the program. Before the drive can be Formatted, the computer will need to be re-booted in order for the new partitions to be given a Drive Letter.
Steps for partitioning a hard drive using FDISK
1. If you’re in Windows, open a DOS window.
2. From the C: prompt, type “FDISK” and press ENTER.
3. If you’re changing the partitions on an existing disk, choose option 4 from the FDISK menu to display existing partition information.
4. If all of the space on the drive is already partitioned, you will need to use FDISK menu option 3 to remove existing partitions before creating new ones.
5. For a new drive from which you will boot your PC, you must first create a Primary DOS Partition. Choose option 1 from the FDISK main menu and Select option 1 from the Create menu to create a Primary DOS Partition.
6. If you only want to have one partition on the drive, type Y when prompted to make one large partition. If making multiple partitions, type N.
7. Enter the size for the partition if you selected N in step 6.
8. To create an extended (non-bootable) DOS partition, choose option 1 from the main FDISK menu, then option 2 from the Create menu.
9. Press enter to use all remaining available space for the partition.
10.Create logical drives on the extended partition by entering the desired size(s) in MB or percent of disk space.
11.Continue until all available space is assigned to logical drives.
12.If you will be booting from this disk, choose option 2 from the FDISK menu and enter 1 to make the primary DOS partition ACTIVE.
13.Press the ESC key to exit FDISK. If running from Windows 9x, you must manually reboot your PC at this point. You must format all partitions before they can be used.
Tips
1. If you are using a 16 bit OS (Windows 3.x or DOS), do not use the maximum available size for your Primary DOS Partition on a drive larger than 2GB or you will be unable to use the rest of the space.
2. Before repartitioning an existing drive, be sure to make a good backup of all of the data on the drive. FDISK will destroy all existing data on the drive.
3. There are utilities (e.g., Partition Magic) that can re-partition existing drives without destroying data or minimizing data loss.
No Fixed Disk present
This means FDISK is unable to find your hard disk drive. Insure that the hard drive is properly setup in CMOS. If the drive is setup properly in CMOS, double check all cable connections on the hard disk drive and the System board. Also make sure all ATA devices are configured as Master or slave.
Drive Lettering
Drive letter assignment is dynamic, meaning DOS/Windows hands out drive letters in sequence each time the computer boots. Booting to a DOS/Windows floppy and running FDISK /STATUS is a quick way to see how the operating system has assigned hard drive letters. DOS/Windows (FAT File Structure) is limited to four Primary DOS partitions and can only assign one Primary DOS partition per physical hard drive. Using Extended Partitions and Logical Drives, you are only limited by the alphabet for Drive Letters.
Every device in your computer has a priority. Drive letters A: and B: are reserved for the Floppy drives. Hard Drives begin with Drive letter C:. Primary DOS partitions have priority over Extended DOS partitions. Therefore, the bootable floppy drive is A:, the non-bootable floppy drive (if present) is B:, the first Active (bootable) primary partition on the first hard drive is C:. Any logical drives or Extended DOS partitions would become D:, E:, F:, etc. (Some networking software reserves Drive Letters starting with F:).
If a second hard drive is in the system, the second Primary DOS partition would be D: and then logical drives or Extended DOS partitions on the first drive would then become E:, F:, G:, respectively (Primary DOS has priority over Extended DOS) followed by any logical drives or Extended DOS partitions on the second drive.
After four Primary DOS partitions have been used, the next priority is for devices loaded by an external BIOS such as SCSI devices. The last priority is for devices controlled by “block mode” drivers loaded from the CONFIG.SYN and/or AUTOEXEC.BAT; most CD-ROM fall in this category and their drive letters are assigned when the MSCDEX.EXE loads. RAM drives, Parallel Port drives, and Double Spaced or Stacked drives also fall into this category. If the CD-ROM device driver is loaded first, it gets the next available drive letter.
When you add a new device, it will get the next available letter following the above mentioned priority assignment and displace any device using that letter. The displaced device will pick up the next available drive letter, and all associated drivers for the displaced device may need to be reconfigured, a common occurrence when adding a second hard drive to a system with a CD-ROM.
FORMAT
After a drive is partitioned with FDISK, each partition must be Formatted to make it useable by the Operating System. After re-booting to the A:> prompt, type FORMAT x: (x= drive letter) and . If this is to be the boot drive, use FORMAT C: /S and to format the drive and make it bootable by transferring the system files (Windows Me requires the distribution CD to make a drive bootable). The FORMAT command will ask a couple of times if you are sure you want to continue with the operation with the warning that Formatting will destroy all data on the drive. If sure, select Yes. The Format command should start the process and show a percent of drive formatted.
If this is a second drive and you are using Windows 95/98, double click the My Computer icon on your Windows desktop. Right click on the first partition of your new drive and choose Format. If this will become the new boot disk, be sure to check the box at the bottom that says “Copy system files.” Choose full format. Give the drive a label of up to 11 letters and/or numbers if you like. Click the Start button to begin formatting. You must repeat these steps for each partition you created on the new drive.
SYS
This command can be used to transfer a fresh copy of system files to a drive that has been partitioned and Formatted (Windows Me will not allow use of SYS command to transfer the system). This will not destroy any data on the drive, but will simply replace the current system files with the ones from the source disk. This is a good way to refresh a drive that has data on it but will no longer boot. Use: SYS x: (x=Drive letter to be refreshed).
An alternate method of partitioning and formatting is included with the DiscWizard/DiscWizard Starter Edition utility.
This means FDISK is unable to find your hard disk drive. Insure that the hard drive is properly setup in CMOS. If the drive is setup properly in CMOS, double check all cable connections on the hard disk drive and the System board. Also make sure all ATA devices are configured as Master or slave.
Drive Lettering
Drive letter assignment is dynamic, meaning DOS/Windows hands out drive letters in sequence each time the computer boots. Booting to a DOS/Windows floppy and running FDISK /STATUS is a quick way to see how the operating system has assigned hard drive letters. DOS/Windows (FAT File Structure) is limited to four Primary DOS partitions and can only assign one Primary DOS partition per physical hard drive. Using Extended Partitions and Logical Drives, you are only limited by the alphabet for Drive Letters.
Every device in your computer has a priority. Drive letters A: and B: are reserved for the Floppy drives. Hard Drives begin with Drive letter C:. Primary DOS partitions have priority over Extended DOS partitions. Therefore, the bootable floppy drive is A:, the non-bootable floppy drive (if present) is B:, the first Active (bootable) primary partition on the first hard drive is C:. Any logical drives or Extended DOS partitions would become D:, E:, F:, etc. (Some networking software reserves Drive Letters starting with F:).
If a second hard drive is in the system, the second Primary DOS partition would be D: and then logical drives or Extended DOS partitions on the first drive would then become E:, F:, G:, respectively (Primary DOS has priority over Extended DOS) followed by any logical drives or Extended DOS partitions on the second drive.
After four Primary DOS partitions have been used, the next priority is for devices loaded by an external BIOS such as SCSI devices. The last priority is for devices controlled by “block mode” drivers loaded from the CONFIG.SYN and/or AUTOEXEC.BAT; most CD-ROM fall in this category and their drive letters are assigned when the MSCDEX.EXE loads. RAM drives, Parallel Port drives, and Double Spaced or Stacked drives also fall into this category. If the CD-ROM device driver is loaded first, it gets the next available drive letter.
When you add a new device, it will get the next available letter following the above mentioned priority assignment and displace any device using that letter. The displaced device will pick up the next available drive letter, and all associated drivers for the displaced device may need to be reconfigured, a common occurrence when adding a second hard drive to a system with a CD-ROM.
FORMAT
After a drive is partitioned with FDISK, each partition must be Formatted to make it useable by the Operating System. After re-booting to the A:> prompt, type FORMAT x: (x= drive letter) and . If this is to be the boot drive, use FORMAT C: /S and to format the drive and make it bootable by transferring the system files (Windows Me requires the distribution CD to make a drive bootable). The FORMAT command will ask a couple of times if you are sure you want to continue with the operation with the warning that Formatting will destroy all data on the drive. If sure, select Yes. The Format command should start the process and show a percent of drive formatted.
If this is a second drive and you are using Windows 95/98, double click the My Computer icon on your Windows desktop. Right click on the first partition of your new drive and choose Format. If this will become the new boot disk, be sure to check the box at the bottom that says “Copy system files.” Choose full format. Give the drive a label of up to 11 letters and/or numbers if you like. Click the Start button to begin formatting. You must repeat these steps for each partition you created on the new drive.
SYS
This command can be used to transfer a fresh copy of system files to a drive that has been partitioned and Formatted (Windows Me will not allow use of SYS command to transfer the system). This will not destroy any data on the drive, but will simply replace the current system files with the ones from the source disk. This is a good way to refresh a drive that has data on it but will no longer boot. Use: SYS x: (x=Drive letter to be refreshed).
An alternate method of partitioning and formatting is included with the DiscWizard/DiscWizard Starter Edition utility.
FORMAT
Type: External (1.0 and later)
Syntax:
FORMAT d:[/1][/4][/8][/F:(size)] [/N:(sectors)] [/T:(tracks)] [/B|/S][/C]
[/V:(label)] [/Q][/U][/V]
Purpose: Formats a disk to accept DOS files.
Syntax:
FORMAT d:[/1][/4][/8][/F:(size)] [/N:(sectors)] [/T:(tracks)] [/B|/S][/C]
[/V:(label)] [/Q][/U][/V]
Purpose: Formats a disk to accept DOS files.
DISCUSSION
Formats the disk in the specified drive to accept DOS files, analyzing the entire disk for defects.
Initializes the directory and file allocation tables. Can be used to format both diskettes and fixed disks
Initializes the directory and file allocation tables. Can be used to format both diskettes and fixed disks
NOTE:
In some earlier versions of DOS, the drive designation letter was optional. If you are using one of these versions, you can format a diskette or a FIXED DISK if you enter FORMAT while working in that drive.
For more information about the FORMAT command, see Chapter 2, Using Common DOS Commands, in the downloadable book DOS the Easy Way.
/1 – Format for single-sided use, regardless of the drive type.
/4 – Formats a double-density diskette in a high-density type disk drive. Files written to a double-sided disk using a high-density drive may not be reliable.
/8 – Formats at 8 sectors per track. If /8 is not specified, FORMAT defaults to 9 or 15 sectors per track, depending upon the disk drive type. The /V option cannot be used with the /8 option.
/F:(size) – Formats disks to specific sizes. You can specify the target disk to be a size value from 160Kb to 2.88Mb. Do not format a floppy disk at a size higher than it was designed for.
/N:(sectors) – Specifies the number of sectors per track on the disk. Used to format a 3.5 inch disk with the number of sectors per track specified using this option. For 720 K-byte disks, this value should be entered as ³N:9.²
/T:(tracks) – Specifies the number of tracks on the disk. Used to format a 3.5 inch disk with the number of tracks specified using this option. For both 720 K-byte disks and 1.44 K-byte disks, this value should be entered as T:80.
/B – Formats a disk reserving room on the disk to later copy the DOS system files.
/S – Copies the operating system files to the disk after formatting. These system files are hidden files and will not appear in a directory listing. Using some versions of DOS, this must be the last option entered.
/C – Causes FORMAT to retest badclusters, otherwise FORMAT will mark the clusters as bad but will not retest them. (In DOS versions before Version 6, FORMAT always retested any bad clusters.)
/V:(label) – Causes FORMAT to prompt for a volume label after the disk is formatted. The label can be of 1 to 11 characters. The same characters acceptable in filenames are acceptable in the volume label (however, you cannot add a file name extension). The /8 option cannot be used with the /V option. DOS Version 5 automatically assigns Label as the disk label and creates a unique serial number in the boot sector of the disk. The serial number is displayed at the end of the formatting process.
/Q – Provides a quick way to format a disk . This option erases the file allocation table and the root directory, but does not identify bad sectors.
/U – Completely erases all data on the target disk making it impossible to perform an UNFORMAT later.
/V – Displays a prompt so that a volume label can be entered.
For more information about the FORMAT command, see Chapter 2, Using Common DOS Commands, in the downloadable book DOS the Easy Way.
/1 – Format for single-sided use, regardless of the drive type.
/4 – Formats a double-density diskette in a high-density type disk drive. Files written to a double-sided disk using a high-density drive may not be reliable.
/8 – Formats at 8 sectors per track. If /8 is not specified, FORMAT defaults to 9 or 15 sectors per track, depending upon the disk drive type. The /V option cannot be used with the /8 option.
/F:(size) – Formats disks to specific sizes. You can specify the target disk to be a size value from 160Kb to 2.88Mb. Do not format a floppy disk at a size higher than it was designed for.
/N:(sectors) – Specifies the number of sectors per track on the disk. Used to format a 3.5 inch disk with the number of sectors per track specified using this option. For 720 K-byte disks, this value should be entered as ³N:9.²
/T:(tracks) – Specifies the number of tracks on the disk. Used to format a 3.5 inch disk with the number of tracks specified using this option. For both 720 K-byte disks and 1.44 K-byte disks, this value should be entered as T:80.
/B – Formats a disk reserving room on the disk to later copy the DOS system files.
/S – Copies the operating system files to the disk after formatting. These system files are hidden files and will not appear in a directory listing. Using some versions of DOS, this must be the last option entered.
/C – Causes FORMAT to retest badclusters, otherwise FORMAT will mark the clusters as bad but will not retest them. (In DOS versions before Version 6, FORMAT always retested any bad clusters.)
/V:(label) – Causes FORMAT to prompt for a volume label after the disk is formatted. The label can be of 1 to 11 characters. The same characters acceptable in filenames are acceptable in the volume label (however, you cannot add a file name extension). The /8 option cannot be used with the /V option. DOS Version 5 automatically assigns Label as the disk label and creates a unique serial number in the boot sector of the disk. The serial number is displayed at the end of the formatting process.
/Q – Provides a quick way to format a disk . This option erases the file allocation table and the root directory, but does not identify bad sectors.
/U – Completely erases all data on the target disk making it impossible to perform an UNFORMAT later.
/V – Displays a prompt so that a volume label can be entered.
EXAMPLE
If you want to format a floppy disk as a double-density disk in a 1.2M drive, you should enter the following:
format a:/4
format a:/4
SOFTWARE PRIVACY AND COPYRIGHT
INTRODUCTION
? Because of human nature, computers systems may be used for both good and bad purposes.
? Some questions to look at include:
? What are the consequences of the widespread use of computing technology?
? Does technology make it easy for others to invade our personal privacy?
? Does technology make it easy for other to invade the security of business organizations like our banks or our employees?
? Competent end users need to be aware of the potential impact of technology on people and how to protect themselves on the Web.
? They need to be sensitive to and knowledgeable about personal privacy, organizational security, ergonomics, and the environmental impact of technology.
PEOPLE
? People are one key component of information systems, the others including procedures, software, hardware, and data.
? Most everyone would agree that technology has had a very positive impact on people, but there are some negative impacts as well.
? Some of these negative concerns include:
PRIVACY
? What are the threats to personal privacy and how can we protect ourselves
SECURITY
? How can access to sensitive information be controlled and how can we secure hardware and software?
ERGONOMICS
? What are the physical and mental risks of using technology, and how can these risks be minimized?
ENVIRONMENT
? What can individuals and organizations do to minimize the impact of technology on our environment?
PRIVACY
? Ethics are standards of moral conduct
? Computer ethics are guidelines for the morally acceptable use of computers in our society
? Four primary computer ethic issues include:
PRIVACY
? Concerns the collection and use of data about individuals
ACCURACY
? Relates to the responsibility of those who collect data to ensure that the data is correct
PROPERTY
? Relates to who owns data and rights to software
ACCESS
? Relates to the responsibility of those who have data to control and who is able to use that data
LARGE DATABASES
? Every day, data is gathered about us and stored in large databases
? The federal government alone has over 2,000 databases
? Our Social Security number has become a national identification number
? Information resellers (aka information brokers) make up an entire industry that collects and sells personal data.
? Electronic profiles are built containing highly detailed and personalize descriptions of individuals
? Some concerns involve the possibility of:
IDENTITY THEFT
? The illegal assumption of someone’s identity for the purposes of economic gain
MISTAKEN IDENTITY
? The electronic profile of one person can be switched with another.
? The Freedom of Information Act entitles you to look at information kept by credit bureaus and government agencies
PRIVATE NETWORKS
? Snoop ware is software that allows organizations to search electronic mail and files
? One survey found nearly 75% of all businesses have done this
? Some argue that these are private networks, and the owners can do what they want
? Others argue that the U.S. is becoming a nation linked by electronic mail, therefore the government has to provide protection for users against other people reading or censoring messages
THE INTERNET AND THE WEB
? Illusion of anonymity is the problem when people believe they are safe from others invading their personal privacy
? Many organizations monitor the email sent and received on their servers
? Some individuals “eavesdrop” on e-mail sent over the web
? Your use of the Web may be monitored, including the creation of a “history file” including a list of all the sites you’ve visited
? Cookies are special files that capture information about the web sites that you visit. Two basic types include:
TRADITIONAL COOKIES
? Monitor your activities at a single site
? Often used to provide customer service
AD NETWORK (AKA ADWARE) COOKIES
? Monitor activities across all sites you visit
? Examples include Double Click and Avenue A
? Programs called “cookie cutter programs” help to filter out these “bad” cookies
? Spyware is software that are designed to secretly record and report on an individual’s activities on the Internet. Adware is just one type of spyware
MAJOR LAWS ON PRIVACY
? Most information collected by non-governmental organizations is NOT covered by existing laws
? The Code of Fair Information Practice has been established to encourage organizations to follow its recommended practices
SECURITY
COMPUTER CRIMINALS
? Computer crime is an illegal action which the perpetrator uses special knowledge of computer technology.
? Five types of computer criminals include:
EMPLOYEES
? The largest category of computer criminals
OUTSIDE USERS
? Criminal Suppliers and clients that have access to an organization’s computers
HACKERS AND CRACKERS
? Hackers are people who gain unauthorized access to a computer for the fun and challenge of it
? Crackers do the same for malicious reasons
? A “bomb” is a destructive computer program put into a system
ORGANIZED CRIME
? Use computers just like legitimate businesses, only for illegal purposes
? Counterfeiters and forgers use computer technology
TERRORISTS
? Knowledgeable terrorist groups can disrupt computer and communication systems
COMPUTER CRIME
? FBI estimates computer crime losses at over $1.5 trillion
MALICIOUS PROGRAMS
VIRUSES
? Programs that migrate through networks and operating systems most attach themselves to programs and databases
? Computer Abuse Amendments Act of 1994
WORMS
? Special type of virus that doesn’t attach itself to programs or databases, but fills a system with self replicating information
TROJAN HORSES
? Programs that come into a system disguised as something else
DENIAL OF SERVICE
? Like a worm, it attempts to slow down a system
? DOS attacks flood a system with requests for information or data, typically via the Internet
INTERNET SCAMS
? A scam is a fraudulent or deceptive act or operation designed to trick an individual into spending their time or money for little or no return
? An Internet scam is a scam using the Internet
THEFT
? Can take many forms, including theft of hardware, software, data or computer time
? Software piracy is the unauthorized copying of programs for personal gain
The Software Copyright Act of 1980 says it IS LEGAL to make a backup copy of software, however, these copies may NOT be sold or given away
DATA MANIPULATION
Finding entry into a system and leaving a message may seem like a prank, but it IS AGAINST the law
Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986 makes it a crime for unauthorized persons to view, copy, or damage data using any computer across state lines.
It also prohibits the unauthorized use of any federal (or federally insured financial institution’s) computer.
OTHER HAZARDS
NATURAL HAZARDS
? Fires, floods, wind, hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes all require remote backup and redundancy plans
CIVIL STRIFE AND TERRORISM
? Wars, riots, and terrorist activities are real risks
TECHNOLOGICAL FAILURE
? Hardware and software will fail, so you need plans for this contingency
? Surge protectors can help protect against voltage surges (aka spikes)
HUMAN ERRORS
? Put in validation plans to help reduce the number of errors
MEASURES TO PROTECT COMPUTER SECURITY
? Security is concerned with protecting information, hardware, and software which much be protected from both man made and natural disasters.
? Some techniques used to protect computer systems include:
ENCRYPTING MESSAGES
? Encoding messages and data so it can not be read by someone without the decoding scheme
RESTRICTING ACCESS
? Keep unauthorized people away from systems by using some things as:
? Biometric scanning devices such as fingerprint or retinal (eye) scanners
? Passwords – secret words
or codes that must be entered to access the system
or codes that must be entered to access the system
? Firewalls – hardware and software that acts as a security buffer between the corporation’s private network and all external networks, including the Internet
ANTICIPATING DISASTERS
? Physical security: protecting hardware from human and natural disasters
? Data security: protecting software and information from unauthorized tampering or damage
? Disaster Recovery Plans: contingencies for continuing operations during an emergency until normal operations can be restored
Hot sites: fully equipped backup computer centers
? Cold sites: building with hook ups, but no equipment
BACKING UP DATA
? Equipment can usually be replaced, but data may be irreplaceable
? Data should be encrypted if sent over networks, restricted from unauthorized viewing and modification, and backed up at a remote location
ERGONOMICS
? Ergonomics is the study of human factors related to things people use
? It is concerned with fitting the job to the working rather than forcing the worker to contort to fit the job
PHYSICAL HEALTH
? Sitting to long and working with computers can lead to:
EYESTRAIN AND HEADACHE
? Take a 15 minute break every hour or two
? Avoid computer screens that flicker
? Screen should be 3-4 times brighter than the background light
BACK AND NECK PAIN
? Make sure tables and chairs are adjustable
? Monitor should be at or slightly below eye level
? Keyboards should be detachable
? Use a footrest to avoid leg strain
REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURY
? RSI (aka cumulative trauma disorder) is a name given to a number of injuries
? Carpal tunnel syndrome consists of damage to nerves and tendons in the hands
? May use ergonomically designed keyboards, take breaks and rests from working on computers
MENTAL HEALTH
NOISE
? Women have been found to be more sensitive to noisy conditions, especially high pitched equipment noises
? Use head mounted microphones and earphones, as well as room soundproofing to reduce noise
ELECTRONIC MONITORING
? Research shows that people suffer more from electronic surveillance than from human
? Fed Ex and Bell Canada removed some electronic surveillance and found that productivity went up
Techno stress is the tension that arises when we have to unnaturally adapt to computers rather than having computers adapt to us
DESIGN
? “less may be more” when it comes to computer design – some people prefer fewer features if the system is easier to use.
THE ENVIRONMENT
? Microcomputers use 5% of the electricity used in the workplace
? The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has created the Energy Star program to discourage waste in the microcomputer industry.
? The microcomputer industry has responded with the Green PC to address the reduction of power consumption by computers
THE GREEN PC
SYSTEM UNIT
? Use an energy saving microprocessor
? Employ microprocessor and hard drives that switch to sleep mode when not in operation
? Replace supply unit with an adapter that uses less electricity
? Eliminate the cooling fan
DISPLAY
? Use flat panel displays (which use less electricity than CRT)
? Use “power-down” monitors
? Use screen saver software that clears the display
MANUFACTURING
? Reduce the amounts of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the manufacturing process
? Other toxic chemicals and metals (nickel, other heavy metals) ar
e removed from the manufacturing process
e removed from the manufacturing process
PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY
CONSERVE
? EPA estimates 30-40% of computers are left on all the time
? EPA estimates that 80% of the time no one is looking at a monitor
? You can use a screen saver to help save energy
RECYCLE
? You can recycle paper, ink cartridges, packaging materials, as well as computer components yourself
EDUCATE
? You can learn more on how to recycle, and encourage others to do the
same
A LOOK TO THE FUTURE
Presence Technology Makes Finding People Easy.
▪ Researchers are developing technology to alert others when you are doing something, such as watching TV, in your car, etc.
▪ Advantage is people would know the “best” way to reach you
▪ Disadvantage is people would always know what you are doing.
