History and Government Form 4 Notes : COOPERATION IN AFRICA

COOPERATION IN AFRICA

Cooperation in Africa refers to the way African countries relate to each other. It is stimulated by the economic exploitation and political domination by Western Europe. The cooperation has been in the form of:

1. Pan-African Movement
2. Organization of African Unity (African Union)
3. The East African Community
4. Economic Community of Western African States
5. Common Markets for Eastern and Southern Africa

PAN-AFRICANISM

Meaning of Pan-Africanism

“Pan” means “all” and “Africa” refers to the continent. “Africanism” refers to those of African origin. Pan-Africanism is a belief in the uniqueness and spiritual unity of Black people acknowledging their right to self-determination.

It is a movement aimed at unifying all the people of African descent in the world. It stands for economic, political, and social advancement for all peoples of African descent throughout the world.

Origin and Development of Pan-Africanism

The movement has roots in the trans-Atlantic slave trade that took place between the 15^th and 19^th centuries. The trade was responsible for the dispersal of black people all over the world. The suffering the slaves underwent made them become conscious of their colour and origin. Africans viewed themselves as having a common destiny. Even those who remained in Africa were later subjected to the colonial experience including forced labour, land alienation, taxation, poor wages, discrimination, corporal punishment, rape, and murder.

The movement first started as the Pan Black Movement for American and Caribbean blacks only. Several African Americans wanted to uplift the lives of fellow Africans in the USA and Africa. They included Martin Delaney, Alexander Cromwell, Bishop James Johnson, Wilmot Blyden, and Bishop Turner. The leading pan-Africanists in America were Booker T. Washington, Marcus Moziah Garvey, Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, and George Padmore.

The pioneer African pan-Africanists included Kwegyir Aggrey from Gold Coast, Wilmot Blyden from Liberia, Kwame Nkrumah from Ghana, and Leopold Sedar Senghor. The Pan Black Movements enlisted all blacks worldwide. It was sometimes called the Pan Negro Movement and was pitted against the evils of racism.

Pan Black Movement gave birth to the Pan-African Movement, which had its first meeting in London in 1900 attended by 32 delegates drawn from the USA, Africa, Canada, West Indies, and Britain. Sylvester Williams, a lawyer from Trinidad, coined the term Pan-Africanism.

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By 1920, an all-African idea had been developed. The first pan-African congress for Africans was held in Manchester, England in 1945, also attended by Jomo Kenyatta.

Causes of Pan-Africanism

1. The Trans-Atlantic slave trade, which took place between the 15^th and 18^th centuries. Africans forced into slavery in America suffered greatly under white people. Africans in Diaspora, through humiliation and sadness, realized they had a common destiny.
2. Colonization of Africa. The division of Africa into 50 colonies separated some communities and put together various people of different history and culture. The divide and rule tactics of colonialists brought deep divisions among the same communities. Africans later realized the need to find common ground to bring about change.
3. The need to correct the negative ideas about Africa and Africans held by Europeans. Whites held a popular belief that Africans belonged to an inferior race without the ability to run their own affairs.
4. Pan-Africanism was a fight against racism. Africans were despised and ridiculed on the grounds of colour and hair texture.
5. The evolution of a leadership cadre of educated Africans. Leaders like Kwame Nkrumah, Sedar Senghor, Jomo Kenyatta, and Blyden wanted to prove that Africans were a civilized people with a rich history and culture.
6. European missionaries discriminated against Africans. Africans formed independent churches contributing to the rise of Pan-Africanism.

Objectives of the Pan-African Movement

1. To unite all peoples of African origin in the struggle for emancipation from social discrimination and colonial rule.
2. To challenge the ideology of white supremacy on which European colonization was based.
3. To improve the African living conditions in the Diaspora and in the African continent.
4. To secure democratic rights for all African peoples, e.g., right to vote, form political associations, etc.
5. To restore the dignity of black people and liberate them from the bondage of slavery.
6. To create a forum through which protests against European colonization and racial discrimination could be channeled.
7. To find better ways of establishing better relations between Europeans and Africans on the one hand and among Africans on the other hand.
8. To appeal to missions and humanitarians to protect Africans against colonial aggression, exploitation, and land alienation.
9. To fight neo-colonialism.

LEADING PAN-AFRICANISTS

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1. Marcus Garvey (1887-1940)

Born on 17^th August 1887 in Jamaica to a family of freed slaves. His dark complexion shaped his philosophy of Pan-Africanism. He witnessed great European and Mulatto discrimination due to his complexion.

He arrived in the USA in 1916 after travelling widely in South and Central America and Britain. In England, Mohammed Duse encouraged him to lead peoples of African descent worldwide in the struggle for liberation. He developed the Pan-African philosophy in the USA, encouraging Africans to take pride in their blackness and cultural heritage.

He founded the Negro Empire in New York in 1920 and organized a black convention in 1924, launching the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) headquartered in Harlem, New York. UNIA’s objectives included:

• To create universal fraternity among the Black Race.
• To assist uplift the civilization of African communities.
• To establish a central nation for the black race.
• To establish academies for African children.
• To promote African cultures.

Garvey founded the journal “The Negro World” and the African Orthodox Church under a black Patriarch and a Black Madonna as the symbol. He advocated for the return to Africa by Africans and believed freedom was to be gained through economic empowerment. He mobilized African Americans to fund black businesses like the Black Starline Shipping Company, which collapsed due to mismanagement. He was arrested, convicted of fraud, imprisoned for five years, deported to Jamaica after two years, and died in 1940.

He is credited with mobilizing Africans to take pride in their cultures and complexion.

2. Booker T. Washington (1856-1915)

Born in 1856 in the USA to a poor slave family. He earned a university degree in Agriculture at Hampton Institute and promoted African education.

He started the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama for training blacks in agricultural and industrial skills. Washington adopted a policy of cooperation with the government to win acceptance by Europeans, believing Africans should gain wealth to attain equal status and end racial discrimination. He began the National Negro Business League with European Andrew Carnegie’s help. He died in 1915.

3. Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois

Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, USA on 23^rd February 1868. He was the first black to receive a PhD and become a professor of History, Economics, and Sociology. He was also a renowned journalist.

He disagreed with Booker T. Washington’s policy of accommodation and cooperation. In 1905, he established the Niagara Movement to protest racial discrimination. In 1900, he was a founding member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), championing Negro civil rights in America.

He prepared the pan-African conferences held between 1900 and 1945 to fight slavery, colonial exploitation, and repression of African peoples. He chaired the Manchester Conference of 1945.

In 1961, he relocated to Ghana, became a citizen on Nkrumah’s invitation, and died in 1963 in Ghana.

THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESSES (1900-1945)

1. The 1^st Pan-African Conference, London, 1900

Held at Westminster Town Hall from 23^rd to 25^th July with 32 participants from Africa, USA, Canada, and West Indies. Sponsored by Trinidad lawyer Henry Sylvester Williams, who coined the term Pan-Africanism. Du Bois made his famous statement: “The problem of the 20^th century is the problem of colourline.”

Objectives of the conference

• To unite people of African origin worldwide.
• To appeal for the end of European colonization and exploitation of Africa.
• To establish better relations between Caucasian and African races.
• To secure full rights and promote economic rights for all Africans.
• To appeal to missionaries and philanthropists in Britain to protect Africans against colonizer aggression.

Conference Agenda

• Human rights violations against blacks in South Africa.
• Living conditions of blacks worldwide.
• Racial discrimination against Africans globally.

The conference sent a memorandum to the Queen of England demanding respect for the rights of Black people, especially in the British Empire.

1. The 2^nd Pan-African Conference, Paris, 1919

Coincided with the Paris Peace Conference. Convened by William Du Bois, sent by NAACP to investigate racial discrimination against African American troops in France during World War I and to represent black peoples’ interests at the peace conference.

Recommendations

• Need for international laws to protect Black people.
• African land to be held in trust for Africans.
• Prevention of exploitation of African nations by foreign companies.
• Rights of Africans to education.
• Abolition of slavery and capital punishment.
• Right of Africans to participate in their government as development permits.

1. The 3^rd Pan-African Conference, 1921

Held in three sessions in London, Brussels, and Paris. Attended by Africans, American coloureds, West Indies, and Africans living in Europe. Patronaged by Du Bois. Demanded establishment of political organizations among suppressed blacks and emphasized international and interracial harmony and democracy.

1. The 4^th Pan-African Congress, London and Lisbon, 1923

Reiterated earlier resolutions and demanded black people be treated like human beings.

1. The 5^th Pan-African Conference, New York, 1927

Mainly attended by African Americans and partly sponsored by European philanthropists. Discussed the attitude of communists towards pan-Africanism.

1. The 6^th Pan-African Conference, Manchester, 1945

Coincided with the end of World War II. Convened by the Pan African Federation formed in 1944 by 13 organizations representing students’ welfare and political groups. Leaders included George Padmore, Ras Makonnen (Ethiopia), C.L.R Wallace Johnson, and Jomo Kenyatta. Inspired by Ethiopia’s liberation in 1941 and Clause three of the Atlantic Charter (1941) promising the right of all people to choose their government, which Winston Churchill claimed did not apply to Africans.

Held on 15^th October 1945 with 90 delegates including Du Bois (West Indies), Nkrumah (Ghana), Kenyatta (Kenya), Padmore (Trinidad), Peter Abrahams (South Africa), Ras Makonnen (Ethiopia), Magnus Williams representing Azikiwe Nnamdi (Nigeria), Obafemi Awolowo (Nigeria), Kamuzu Banda (Malawi), and 11 observer nations.

Du Bois chaired the conference; Nkrumah and Padmore were joint secretaries.

Uniqueness of the conference

• Organized mainly by Africans from the continent, unlike earlier ones organized by Africans in Diaspora, except Du Bois and Padmore.
• White philanthropists were absent and did not finance the conference.
• Many African trade unions were represented, including those from Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Ghana, and Gambia. Most of West Indies was also represented.

Key Resolutions of the Manchester Conference

1. Africans should concentrate on winning political power through non-violent means such as strikes and boycotts.
2. African intellectuals should mobilize the masses to fight for political liberation.

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Following the conference, Kwame Nkrumah established the West African National Secretariat (WANS) on 15^th December 1945 in England to act as a regional body for the Pan African Federation and promote unity in West Africa. WANS published a newsletter, The New African, aimed at inspiring African youth to resist imperialism.

Why the 1945 Manchester (Pan-African) Congress was a landmark in African history

1. For the first time, leading African representatives from the continent attended, e.g., Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, Kamuzu Banda, Haile Selassie. They adopted radical nationalist demands for independence.
2. It was the first congress to strongly condemn European colonization of Africa and demand autonomy and liberty for African states.
3. The congress was instrumental in Ghana’s independence in 1957 and Egypt’s soon after.
4. It set the pace for similar conferences in Africa, like the 1958 All African Congress and the 1960 Tunis-Pan African People’s Conference.
5. Solidarity and unity among Africans began to develop, paving the way for the Organization of African Unity.
6. It marked the establishment of the movement’s activities in Africa.

Why the Pan-African Movement was not active in Africa before 1945

1. Lack of adequate African representation; Africans in the movement were few and mostly political exiles or students outside Africa.
2. Colonial authorities outlawed movements against their policies.
3. Divide and rule policies hindered communication and cooperation among Africans.
4. Africans were mainly concerned with local issues like land alienation, forced labour, and taxation.
5. Independent countries Liberia and Ethiopia had internal problems and paid little attention to international matters.
6. Lack of venues in Africa for meetings due to colonial restrictions.
7. Poor transport and communication limited the spread of Pan-Africanism.
8. Widespread illiteracy and ignorance due to limited education.
9. Poverty hindered contributions to Pan-African efforts.

The role of Kwame Nkrumah in Pan-Africanism

1. Participated as secretary in the 1945 Manchester Conference, proposing delegates return home to lead nationalist struggles.
2. Established the West African National Secretariat (WANS) in England to coordinate Pan-African activities in West Africa.
3. Founded the Convention People’s Party (CPP) in 1949, which led Ghana to independence in 1957.
4. As Ghana’s president, inspired other African countries’ independence struggles and the black civil rights movement in the USA.
5. Hosted the first Pan-African conference of independent states in Accra in 1958, pledging to assist Africans fighting for independence.
6. Funded nationalists in other countries, e.g., Ghana and Algeria.
7. Supported African leaders facing political threats from former colonial masters, e.g., assisted Guinean leader Sekou Toure with loans after French withdrawal.
8. Championed trade unionism in Africa, allowing trade union participation at the Manchester conference.
9. Participated in convening Pan-African conferences leading to the formation of the OAU.

Note: Due to his fight against Western domination, Nkrumah was overthrown in a 1966 military coup and died in exile in Bucharest, Romania, on 27^th April 1972.

Reasons why the Pan-African Movement became active in Africa after 1945

1. World War II strengthened nationalism; support from UNO, USA, and USSR boosted independence quests.
2. The 1945 Manchester Conference united African elites who inspired colleagues back home.
3. Independence of India (1947) and Burma (1948) encouraged African nationalists.
4. Decline of Pan-Africanism in America during the Cold War activated the movement in Africa.
5. Ghana’s independence in 1957 inspired focus on liberation within Africa.

Performance of the Pan-African Movement

Achievements

1. Created political awareness and concern for blacks’ suffering worldwide.
2. Restored status and dignity eroded by slavery, colonialism, and racism.
3. Provided a forum for discussing African problems and promoted brotherhood.
4. Developed solidarity among Africans on continental issues.
5. Laid the basis for the formation of the OAU (later African Union).
6. Enabled African leaders’ commitment to African issues; e.g., black caucus in the USA pressured against apartheid.
7. Encouraged research on African culture, history, literature, music, religion, medicine, and art.
8. Advanced African nationalism by encouraging pride in ancestry and rights.
9. Condemned Mussolini’s 1935 attempt to colonize Ethiopia through protests worldwide.

Challenges

1. European opposition; e.g., Marcus Garvey’s arrest and imprisonment.
2. Difficult African participation due to colonialism.
3. Lack of economic empowerment and education hindered projects.
4. Illiteracy and ignorance limited support.
5. Movement restricted to Africa post-independence; absence of African-Americans affected progress.
6. Divisions among Africans after independence (radical vs. conservative, francophone vs. anglophone).
7. European media domination spread negative propaganda.
8. Disagreements among leaders on strategies for African welfare.
9. Strong economic ties between colonies and mother countries hindered cooperation.
10. Lack of venues in Africa for meetings before 1957.

THE PAN-AFRICAN MOVEMENT ACTIVITIES AFTER 1950

Despite challenges, the movement remained active in the 1950s and 1960s, with several conferences convened:

1. 1^st Conference of Independent African States, Accra, Ghana, April 1958: Attended by eight independent African states pledging to assist others fighting for independence.
2. All-African Peoples Conference, Accra, December 1958: Attended by freedom fighters and trade unionists, chaired by Tom Mboya of Kenya. Resolved to use all means for political independence and encourage unity among African leaders.
3. All-African Peoples Conference, Tunis, January 1960: Strengthened desire for unity among African states.
4. 2^nd Conference of Independent African States, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, June 1960: Forerunner to OAU formation; exposed divisions over Congo crisis.
5. Brazzaville Conference, December 1960: Attended by 12 francophone conservative African states; emphasized respect for international frontiers and non-interference.
6. Casablanca Conference, January 1961: Reaction to Brazzaville by radicals supporting Morocco and advocating removal of foreign troops in Congo.
7. Monrovia Conference, May 1961: Brought moderates and conservatives together, emphasizing equality of states and resolving Algerian referendum and Congo situation.

ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU)

What was the OAU?

An association of independent African states existing from 1963 to 2002, when renamed the African Union (AU).

Origin and Development of OAU

Formed after a series of Pan-African congresses. In January 1961, African states met in Casablanca and Monrovia to address the Congo crisis. In 1963, 32 independent African states met in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, under Emperor Haile Selassie, forming the OAU with Selassie as first chairperson. Membership grew to 54.

Note: Morocco withdrew in 1984 after the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic was admitted.

Objectives of the OAU

1. Provide a permanent organization for African countries to discuss and solve issues.
2. Provide identity for newly independent African countries.
3. Coordinate and assist speedy decolonization.
4. Improve living standards of African people.
5. Defend independence and sovereignty of African states.
6. Promote cooperation in economic, social, and political fields.
7. Enhance African solidarity and unity.
8. Support world peace organizations like the UN and Non-Aligned Movement.
9. Promote peaceful settlement of disputes.
10. Promote non-interference in internal matters of member states.

Fundamental Principles of OAU

1. Recognition of sovereign equality of member states.
2. Non-interference in internal affairs.
3. Respect for territorial integrity and independent existence.
4. Peaceful settlement of disputes.
5. Condemnation of political assassination or subversion.
6. Dedication to emancipation of territories under colonial rule.
7. Adherence to non-alignment.

Structure of the former OAU

Modeled after the United Nations but with no veto powers; all members have equal vote.

• Assembly of Heads of State and Government: Supreme organ meeting annually, electing chairperson, deciding critical issues by two-thirds majority.
• Council of Ministers: Foreign ministers meeting twice yearly, preparing agenda and budget, implementing decisions.
• General Secretariat: Headed by secretary-general, providing daily administrative services.
• Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration: Settles disputes among members, serving five-year terms.
• Specialized Agencies: Handle technical business, e.g., Liberation Committee, Economic and Social Commission, Defence Commission, Supreme Council of Sports.

Achievements of OAU

1. Resolved border disputes among member states.
2. Achieved total liberation of African countries, supporting military struggles.
3. Condemned human rights violations and encouraged economic sanctions against apartheid.
4. Enabled African governments to speak with one voice on continental matters.
5. Provided forum for discussing common problems and solutions.
6. Embarked on common economic ventures like the African Development Bank.
7. Encouraged infrastructure development linking regions.
8. Created cultural identity through sports and All-African Games.
9. Addressed refugee problems in the continent.
10. Instrumental in forming regional organizations like ECOWAS, SADC, and COMESA.

Problems faced by OAU

1. Differences in economic development and history hindered cooperation.
2. Ideological differences during the Cold War hampered operations.
3. Lack of sufficient funds due to poverty of member states.
4. Problem of sovereignty; countries disregarded OAU resolutions for national interests.
5. Lack of effective machinery and standing army to enforce decisions.
6. Conflicting loyalties due to membership in other organizations.
7. Colonial legacy issues like land disputes and neo-colonialism.
8. Interference by big powers.
9. Emergence of dictators undermining unity.
10. Unresolved civil strife in various countries.

THE AFRICAN UNION

Origin of the African Union

On 9^th September 1999, Heads of State met in Libya and issued the Sirte Declaration calling for the establishment of the African Union and a Pan-African Parliament. On 29^th May 2000, the formation documents were adopted. On 2^nd June 2000, the Constitutive Act was adopted in Lome, Togo.

The AU was born in 2002 at a summit in Durban, South Africa, convening the first Assembly of Heads of State.

Differences between the former OAU and the present AU

1. AU challenges non-interference and allows intervention in conflicts and human rights violations.
2. AU is a union of African peoples, not just heads of state, with increased participation via Pan-African Parliament and economic, social, and cultural councils.
3. AU has accountability mechanisms like the African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM).
4. AU has broader development plans, e.g., NEPAD, promoting growth, poverty eradication, and halting marginalization.
5. AU presupposes establishment of a security council and African Court of Justice with law enforcement powers.

Objectives of AU

1. Accelerate political, social, and economic integration.
2. Promote and defend African common positions.
3. Defend independence, territorial integrity, and sovereignty.
4. Promote democratic principles, participation, and good governance.
5. Establish conditions for Africa’s role in the global economy and negotiations.
6. Promote cooperation in economic, social, and political fields.
7. Enhance African solidarity and unity.
8. Promote peace, security, and stability through peaceful dispute settlement.
9. Advance development through research, especially in science and technology.
10. Encourage international cooperation respecting UN Charter and Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
11. Work with partners to eradicate preventable diseases and promote health.

Structure of African Union

The AU charter outlines:

1. The Assembly: Supreme organ meeting annually to elect chairperson, determine policies, consider admissions, monitor implementation, and appoint judges.
2. The Executive Council: Made up of foreign ministers coordinating policies in areas like trade, energy, industry, water, and environment.
3. The Commission/Secretariat: Chairperson, deputy, eight commissioners, and staff handling administration and implementation.
4. The Permanent Representatives Committee: Ambassadors preparing for the executive council and managing daily affairs, seated in Addis Ababa.
5. Specialized Committees and Agencies: Handle technical business, e.g., Rural Economy, Monetary Affairs, Trade, Transport, Education, Health, Labour, Culture.
6. The Economic and Social Council: Performs advisory functions.
7. Other proposed structures: Peace and Security Council, Pan-African Parliament, Court of Justice, and Financial Institutions like African Central Bank.

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THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY

Founded on 6^th June 1967, comprising Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania.

Origin

Traced back to 1902 efforts by British and German colonial governments to establish unified administration over East African territories. Examples include the East African Court of Appeal (1902), Postal Union (1911), Customs Union (1917), Currency Board (1920), and High Commission (1948).

On 9^th December 1961, the East African High Commission was replaced by the East African Common Services Organization headquartered in Nairobi. The treaty establishing the East African Community was signed on 6^th June 1967 and came into force on 1^st December 1967.

Objectives of the East African Community

1. Maintain common markets and promote balanced economic cooperation.
2. Provide common services, especially in transport and communication.
3. Promote political cooperation among the three countries for peace and security.
4. Facilitate movement of people to foster cooperation and understanding.
5. Expand the market in a region with low population and incomes.

Challenges up to 1977

1. Suspicion over perceived dominance, with Tanzania and Uganda accusing Kenya of benefiting disproportionately.
2. Personality differences among leaders hampered meetings.
3. Ideological differences: Kenya followed capitalism, Tanzania socialism, Uganda mixed economy.
4. Political instability in Uganda, including coup d’état undermining unity.
5. National pride and interests prioritized over regional interests.
6. Boundary closures, e.g., Tanzania-Kenya border in 1977 and Tanzania-Uganda during 1978 war.

The Rebirth of the East African Community – 2001

Reasons

1. Need to maintain common market and promote balanced economic cooperation.
2. Need to provide common services in transport, communication, and research.
3. Desire to promote political cooperation among the three countries in a globalizing world.
4. Need to facilitate free movement of people.
5. Lessons learned from losses after the 1977 collapse.

Milestones

1. March 14, 1996: Secretariat of the Permanent Tripartite Commission launched in Arusha; Ambassador Francis Muthaura appointed first secretary general.
2. November 19, 1996: Agreement establishing East African Business Council signed in Nairobi.
3. April 29, 1997: Second summit launched first East African Cooperation development strategy (1997-2000).
4. April 30, 1998: Ninth meeting of Permanent Tripartite Commission launched treaty for East African Community establishment.
5. November 24, 1998: First East African Ministerial meeting on Lake Victoria hyacinth held; regional strategy developed.
6. January 22, 1999: Third summit directed completion of treaty-making process by July 30, 1999.
7. November 30, 1999: Treaty establishing East African Community signed by the three heads of state.

Structure of the New East African Community

1. Summit of Heads of State: Supreme organ giving direction; chair rotates.
2. Council of Ministers: Main decision-making organ comprising designated ministers.
3. Coordinating Committee: Permanent secretaries reporting to Council of Ministers.
4. Sectoral Committees: Created by Council on recommendation of Coordinating Committee.
5. East African Legislative Assembly: Democratic forum and watchdog; 30 members from member states.
6. Secretariat: Based in Arusha, handling day-to-day administration.
7. Court of Justice of East Africa: Highest appellate court in the region.

Other autonomous institutions include the East African Development Bank (EADB), Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO), and Inter-University Council for East Africa (IUCEA).

Challenges faced by EAC – 2001

1. Suspicion over Kenya’s dominance.
2. Tanzania customs taxing Kenyan products despite treaty.
3. Cross-border smuggling and insecurity.
4. Cattle rustling along Kenya-Uganda border.
5. Arrest of Kenyan fishermen by Tanzanian or Ugandan authorities.
6. Membership in other regional bodies complicates work.
7. Disputes over Migingo Island ownership between Kenya and Uganda.
8. Use of different currencies complicates transactions.
9. Political squabbles slow community progress.
10. National interests slow implementation of community activities.

Achievements of the East African Community – 2001

1. Boosted movement of citizens; introduced East African passport.
2. Provided forum for harmonious discussion among leaders.
3. Improved and expanded transport and communication networks.
4. Reduced tariffs for industrial goods produced in East Africa.
5. Eased investment procedures within the community.
6. Enhanced civil society cooperation, forming Law Society and Business Council of East Africa.
7. Promoted trade among member states.

THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)

Formation

A regional group of 15 West African countries. Treaty signed in Lagos, Nigeria on 28^th May 1975 by Gambia, Mali, Cape Verde, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin, Togo, Côte d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, and Guinea.

Objectives of ECOWAS

1. Provide economic cooperation in transport, communication, agriculture, trade, and industry.
2. Liberalize trade among member states.
3. Improve relations among member states.
4. Improve living standards.
5. Create a customs union.
6. Promote industrial development.
7. Promote cultural interaction.

Organization of ECOWAS

1. Authority of Heads of State and Government: Meets annually; chair rotates.
2. Council of Ministers: Designated ministers meeting twice yearly managing affairs.
3. Tribunal: Industrial court settling disputes.
4. Executive Secretariat: Based in Lagos, Nigeria, handling daily administration.
5. Specialized Commissions and Agencies: Committees on industry, natural resources, trade, transport, culture, and social affairs.

Achievements of ECOWAS

1. Defence Act (1981) provided military support; ECOMOG quelled civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
2. Economic benefits, e.g., Nigeria providing oil at reduced prices.
3. Regular meetings of Heads of State to tackle regional problems.
4. Socio-cultural exchanges promoting good relations.
5. Improvements in transport, trade, agriculture, and communication.
6. Resolved political problems.
7. Visa waiver allowing free movement among member states.
8. Progress in education through joint examination syllabus.

Challenges faced by ECOWAS

1. Political instability and military coups in member states.
2. Nationalistic issues prioritizing domestic over regional concerns.
3. Language barriers due to colonial languages.
4. Poor infrastructure hindering economic progress.
5. Ideological differences causing mistrust.
6. Lack of uniform currency hindering trade.
7. Foreign interference, e.g., Israeli and French soldiers in Côte d’Ivoire.
8. Border closures, e.g., Ghana-Togo and Burkina Faso-Mali.

THE COMMON MARKETS FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA (COMESA)

An economic organization of 19 states established on 8^th December 1994 to replace the Preferential Trade Area.

Aims and Objectives

1. Attain sustainable growth and development by promoting balanced production and marketing.
2. Promote cooperation in all fields of economic activity and joint adoption of macro-economic policies.
3. Cooperate in promoting peace, security, and stability to enhance economic development.
4. Create an enabling environment for foreign, cross-border, and domestic investment.
5. Strengthen relations between the common market and the rest of the world.
6. Contribute to the African Economic Community’s objectives.

Principles Governing COMESA

1. Equality and interdependence of member states.
2. Solidarity and collective self-reliance.
3. Inter-state cooperation, policy harmonization, and program integration.
4. Non-aggression.
5. Recognition and protection of human and peoples’ rights.
6. Accountability, economic justice, and popular participation.
7. Rule of law.
8. Promotion and sustenance of democratic governance.
9. Maintenance of regional peace and good neighbourliness.
10. Peaceful settlement of disputes and cooperation among neighbouring countries.

Organization of COMESA

1. Authority of Heads of State and Government: Supreme policy-making organ meeting annually.
2. Council of Ministers: Designated ministers meeting annually managing affairs.
3. Court of Justice: Ensures treaty interpretation and settles disputes.
4. Committee of Governors of Central Banks: Manages clearing house and monetary cooperation.
5. Inter-Governmental Committee: Permanent secretaries managing programs except financial sector.
6. Secretariat: Based in Lusaka, Zambia, providing technical support; Secretary-General Erastus Mwencha since 1997.
7. Technical Committees: Committees on natural resources, agriculture, trade, transport, labour, culture, and social affairs.
8. Consultative Committee: Business community and stakeholders linking with COMESA.
9. Specialized Independent Institutions: Eastern and Southern African Trade and Development Bank (PTA Bank), PTA Reinsurance Company, COMESA Clearing House, COMESA Association of Commercial Banks, COMESA Leather Institute.

Achievements of COMESA

1. Provides a wide, harmonized, and competitive market for internal and external trade.
2. Rational exploitation of natural resources for welfare.
3. Established harmonized monetary, banking, and financial policies.
4. Improved transport and communication administration.
5. Ensured cooperation in peace, security, and stability to enhance economic development.
6. Strengthened relations between the common market and the world.
7. Directed and controlled affairs through the Authority of Heads of State.
8. Achieved customs cooperation via a unified computerized network.
9. Provided room for greater industrial productivity and competitiveness.
10. Promoted good governance, accountability, and respect for human rights.
11. Contributed to employment.
12. Promoted increased agricultural production and natural resource exploitation.
13. Ensured efficient and reliable transport and communication infrastructure.

Challenges faced by COMESA

1. Membership in other bodies causing divided loyalty.
2. Personality differences among leaders.
3. Boundary conflicts, e.g., Ethiopia and Eritrea.
4. Civil wars undermining operations.
5. Quarrels over trading rights.
6. Poor transport between member states.
7. Withdrawal of Tanzania and Namibia to SADC undermined COMESA.
8. Some members undermining neighbours, e.g., Uganda and Rwanda in DRC conflicts.

Reasons Africa has been unable to achieve full economic integration

1. Poor transport and communication impeding trade flow.
2. Uneven resource distribution among countries.
3. Budget deficits and balance of payment problems limiting foreign exchange.
4. Political interference by unenlightened leaders.
5. Rivalry among member states.
6. Poor share in world trade due to industrialized countries’ control.
7. Structural Adjustment Programmes and multi-partism hampering integration.
8. Inability to interfere in internal affairs when necessary.
9. Failure to contribute fully to organizations.
10. Colonial legacy causing dependence on the West for goods, technology, and ideas.

NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES (KENYA)

AFRICAN SOCIALISM

Meaning and Origin

Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 defines African socialism as an African political and economic system that is positively African and capable of incorporating useful and compatible techniques from any source.

African socialism was born from leaders’ desire to create a new society different from colonial society, embracing equity without racism, oppression, or social injustices.

Main Features of African Socialism in Kenya

1. Political democracy where all people are politically free and equal.
2. Various forms of wealth ownership, including free enterprise, nationalization of key industries, and private sector partnerships.
3. Mutual social responsibility motivated by service, not greed.
4. Controls ensuring property is used for society’s mutual interests.
5. Progressive taxation for equitable wealth and income distribution.
6. Diffusion of ownership to avoid concentration of economic power.

Achievements of African Socialism

1. Promoted democratic governance and multiparty politics; growth of civil society.
2. Promoted African cultures consistent with traditions.
3. Promoted national unity and coexistence among communities.
4. Efforts toward fairness and justice through progressive taxation and rural development.
5. Established cooperative societies promoting social and economic development.
6. Promoted agricultural development through land tenure and settlement schemes.
7. Achieved social development in education and health; ended discrimination in schools and hospitals.
8. Encouraged African participation in the economy via Africanization of industries.
9. Encouraged rapid development through mutual social responsibility and patriotism.

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Problems faced by African Socialism

1. Progressive taxation burdened the poor, discouraging development.
2. Political interference and leadership wrangles retarded development.
3. Misappropriation discouraged unity, cooperation, and self-help.
4. Corruption led to negative attitudes toward national development contributions.