History and Government Form 2 Notes : CHAPTER 3 – Development of Industry

CHAPTER 3

Development of Industry

Industrialisation is the process of producing goods from raw materials. Before the Industrial Revolution of the 19^th century, wood, wind, and water were the major sources of energy in the world.

The Sources of Energy

Wood

Before the 19^th century, wood was an important source of energy. It was used for cooking, boiling water, and warming houses in winter. In the early 19^th century, wood was also used for making charcoal that was used for smelting iron. Additionally, wood heated water to prepare steam power for driving steam engines and steamships.

Wind

Energy from wind was used for pumping water from mines and wells. It was used to separate grains from husks (winnowing) and to drive ships and boats, such as the Arab dhows. Wind energy also operated windmills for grinding grains into flour. Balloons used wind energy to fly.

Water

Water provided energy for operating spinning and weaving machines and water mills for grinding flour. It also powered water pumps and was heated to produce steam power.

Uses of Metals in Africa

Bronze

Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. It was used to make weapons such as daggers, arrowheads, swords, axes, and spears, as well as tools like chisels and hoes. Bronze was also used to make ornaments, utensils, containers, sculptures, and musical instruments such as flutes. Additionally, it was used for making stones for constructing pyramids in Egypt and decorating kings’ palaces.

Gold

Gold is an attractive metal used by rulers to decorate their palaces as a sign of wealth. The rulers of the Asante Kingdom in West Africa regarded gold as their sole property; anyone who found a gold nugget had to hand it over to the king. Gold was used to make ornaments, sculptures, knife handles, utensils, and containers. It was an important trade commodity among the people of the Mwene Mtapa Kingdom and the city-state of Kilwa, which minted gold coins.

Copper

Copper was found in many parts of Africa such as Egypt, Zaire, and Zambia. It was used to make ornaments like bangles, tools such as needles, and to mint copper coins that acted as a sign of wealth and medium of exchange. Copper utensils were also made, and it was used for decorating kings’ palaces and making brass and bronze alloys. In Egypt, copper was used to make water pipes and weapons.

Iron

Several early iron-working centres existed in Africa, including Meroe, Nok, Taruga, Axum, Korotoro, Kwale, and Kavirondo Gulf. These centres were famous for making various iron tools such as hoes, knives, and axes. In some places, cattle bells and jingles for festivities were made. Iron was widely used for making high-quality weapons like daggers, swords, spearheads, arrowheads, and stabbing knives. Gold sculptures representing people were made in West Africa at Nok and Taruga iron-working sites. The Bantu are associated with the spread of iron-working technology in Africa.

The spread of iron-working technology had the following impacts:

1. More land was cultivated due to better iron tools such as hoes and axes, which cleared forests.
2. Trade increased, especially between blacksmiths and cultivators.
3. It encouraged migrations because iron weapons made migrating communities confident of conquering others and settling securely.
4. Iron weapons enabled some communities to expand through conquest, leading to the growth of strong states such as Nubia, Mwene Mtapa, Buganda, Axum, and Ancient Ghana.
5. Iron making encouraged wars as people acquired superior iron weapons, giving them courage to advance and conquer others.
6. Iron working encouraged job specialisation; some became blacksmiths, others made specific items like knives, daggers, axes, hoes, and spearheads.
7. Food production increased rapidly due to expansion of farmlands.
8. Early mining centres attracted more people, encouraging urbanisation.
9. Iron weapons improved community defence systems.
10. Weaker communities were displaced or assimilated by stronger ones during migration.
11. In some areas, iron became a medium of exchange.

Uses of Various Sources of Energy During the Industrial Revolution in Europe

Coal

Coal was the main energy source in the 19^th century. It heated water to very high temperatures to produce steam, which drove water pumps to remove water from coal mines. Coal produced steam for driving steamships and locomotives and was used for heating and lighting houses. Today, coal is used for generating electricity and powering industries.

Oil

Petroleum use became popular during the Industrial Revolution. Initially, oil was used to light lamps in houses and streets. After Gottlieb Daimler invented the first internal combustion engine using petrol, petroleum was used to drive motor vehicles. It also lubricated machines in factories and generated thermal electricity. Historically, petroleum was used as medicine by the Chinese and Indians. Today, petroleum products are used in industries to make drugs, synthetics, plastics, and fertilisers.

The Disadvantages of Petroleum

Petroleum is expensive to mine, non-renewable once exhausted, and pollutes the environment.

Steam

Steam was produced by heating water to very high temperatures. Steam was used to:

1. Drive heavy machines in factories.
2. Pump water out of mines.
3. Drive steam-driven vehicles.
4. Drive steam-driven trains and locomotives.
5. Drive steamships and steamboats.
6. Operate spinning and weaving machines.

Steam locomotive

Electricity

There are two forms of electricity: hydro-electricity and thermal electricity. Hydro-electricity is produced by converting the energy of moving water into electrical energy. Thermal electricity is produced by burning oil or coal to provide heat, which produces steam that turns turbines to generate electricity.

Electrical power was and is used to:

1. Drive machines in industries and factories.
2. Light houses.
3. Drive electric trains and cars.
4. Heat houses.
5. Supply power to radios, televisions, cinemas, and computers.
6. Supply power to refrigerators and electric cookers.
7. Welding.
8. Boil water.
9. Fence game parks.

Uses of Iron and Steel

Iron smelting started early when communities began separating it from rock. In the 18^th and 19^th centuries, new iron smelting techniques were discovered. Iron was in high demand during the Industrial Revolution, especially in transport, where it was used to make ships, trains, rails, and bridges. Iron was also used to make textile machines, water pipes, and ploughs.

In the mid-19^th century, Henry Bessemer discovered how to convert iron into steel. Steel replaced iron in many transport industry applications because it is stronger. Rail bars, trains, ships, and bridges were made of steel. Later, steel was used to reinforce concrete in permanent buildings.

Steel producing plant

Today, steel is widely used in motor vehicle industries, shipbuilding, train manufacturing, and building materials such as iron sheets, roofing bars, nuts, and bolts. Steel is used to make many tools and machinery.

Industrialisation in Britain

Britain was the first European nation to industrialise. During the first half of the 19^th century, it was the leading industrialised nation, manufacturing textiles and various iron items.

Britain had rich coal mines providing enough coal for industrial power, with surplus exported. This made Britain the leading trading nation during the first half of the 19^th century.

Other European countries and the USA borrowed industrial technology from Britain. By the 1870s, Britain ceased to be the world’s leading industrialised nation.

The last half of the 19^th century saw many scientific inventions and discoveries promoting industrialisation in Britain and other nations like the USA, France, and Germany. Britain became the first nation to industrialise due to the following factors:

1. Good transport and communication network.
2. Enough capital to invest in industry.
3. Sufficient raw materials such as coal, iron, and cotton.
4. A long period of peace and political stability.
5. A strong and superior British army defending waters from rivals and pirates.
6. Well-advanced insurance and banking systems.
7. Absence of trade barriers like tariffs due to free trade policy.
8. Enterprising merchants encouraging trade and industrial growth.
9. Well-developed cottage industries laying the basis for industrial takeoff.
10. Adequate skilled and unskilled labour.
11. Acquisition of overseas colonies providing raw materials.
12. Rapid population growth expanding internal markets and colonies providing external markets.
13. Technological advancements leading to new inventions.
14. Availability of energy from coal.
15. The Agrarian Revolution providing sufficient food for industrial workers.

The effects of industrialisation in Britain in the 19^th century

1. Stimulated rural-urban migration of the landless seeking employment, leading to urbanisation.
2. Development of transport and communication facilities like roads, railways, and telephones to serve industrial centres.
3. Expansion of banking and insurance industries providing services and creating employment.
4. Enormous expansion of local and international trade; manufactured goods sold domestically and abroad, with colonies supplying raw materials.
5. Encouraged colonialism to acquire raw materials; Britain acquired colonies such as India, Egypt, Ghana, and Nigeria.
6. Raised living standards, especially for the middle class, sharpening social stratification.
7. Developed agricultural production in Britain, USA, and colonies; industrial workers required food and lubricants like palm oil.
8. Industrial machines produced fumes and noise pollution, causing health issues.
9. Poor living conditions for factory workers led to slums with overcrowding and poor ventilation.
10. Exploitation of labour; children and women worked long hours before machines replaced manual labour.
11. Unemployment increased as machines replaced labourers; some unemployed turned to immoral careers for survival.
12. Overcrowding and poor sanitation caused disease outbreaks like dysentery, cholera, and tuberculosis.

Industrialisation in Continental Europe

Industrial technology spread from Britain to other European countries in the second half of the 19^th century. Germany, France, and Belgium, with abundant coal, iron, steel, and labour, industrialised next.

Industrial research led to discoveries like Henry Bessemer’s steel-making method. Electricity and petroleum became important energy sources.

Rapid industrialisation in continental Europe was characterised by:

1. Improved transport and communication for raw materials and goods.
2. Increased exploitation of coal and iron ore.
3. Improvements in agriculture to produce food for urban and industrial workers and provide raw materials.
4. Mass production of goods and many new inventions from industrial research.

Problems the Industrial Workers Experienced

1. Very low wages leading to poor living conditions.
2. Exposure to dangerous machines, noise, and chemicals causing injuries and deaths.
3. Diseases like typhoid, cholera, dysentery, and tuberculosis due to poor living conditions.
4. Women and children worked long hours in factories, denying leisure and rest.
5. Polluted work environments due to improper industrial waste disposal.
6. Overcrowded housing with inadequate lighting and ventilation.
7. Poverty increased crime rates, exposing workers to robbery.
8. Factory workers were not insured.

Effects of the Industrial Revolution in Europe

1. Stimulated rural-urban migration seeking jobs in expanding urban centres.
2. Scramble for colonies to acquire raw materials, markets, and investment areas.
3. Increased urbanisation due to employment and trade opportunities.
4. Raised living standards from industrial income.
5. Expansion of factories, banking, and insurance.
6. Created employment in mechanics, plant operators, engineers, and managers.
7. Led to the rise of trade unionism in countries like Britain, France, and Germany.
8. Replaced human labour with machines.
9. Produced goods in large quantities for export.
10. Encouraged development of transport and communication systems.
11. Caused pollution, overcrowding, and crime.
12. Promoted agricultural development to feed industrial workers.
13. Caused unemployment where machines replaced manual labour.
14. Stimulated local and international trade.
15. Led to exploitation of labour, with children working long hours.

Emergence of the World Industrial Powers

The USA

The USA has led industrialisation for a long time. Before industrialisation, Americans were largely agricultural. British migrants stimulated industrialisation in the USA.

Factors contributing to USA’s industrial success include:

1. Abundant natural resources like iron ore, coal, and forestry.
2. Adequate skilled and unskilled labour from a large population and slaves providing farm labour.
3. Adequate energy resources including coal, iron ore, uranium, petroleum, electricity, and natural gas.
4. Developed transport and communication: railways, roads, airways, telegraph, radio, telephones, telegrams, and televisions.
5. Technological advancements in the 19^th and 20^th centuries.
6. Banks and insurance supporting industry.
7. Government encouragement of foreign investment from Germany and Japan.
8. Adequate capital from the Agrarian Revolution and foreign investors.
9. Political stability with few strikes and disputes.
10. Introduction of plantation agriculture by British migrants providing raw materials.
11. Intensive research and emphasis on science and industrial development in universities.
12. Government policies favoring growing industries and discouraging tariffs on local goods.
13. A strong agricultural base supporting industrial takeoff.

The effects of industrialisation on the USA

1. Improved standards of living; government supports unemployed citizens.
2. Diversified economy with income from agriculture and industry.
3. Boosted industrial technology through education and research.
4. Became a major world power after the USSR’s breakup.
5. Mechanised agriculture to increase yields and feed the population.
6. Participated in space exploration; Neil Armstrong was the first human on the moon.
7. Earned foreign currency, enabling abundant foreign reserves and donor status.
8. Local investment by businessmen from industrial wealth.
9. Developed military might, enabling actions like ousting Saddam Hussein.
10. Encouraged urbanisation.
11. Caused environmental pollution.
12. Created job opportunities.

Germany

Germany began industrialising in the 19^th century and by 1900 was second to the USA.

Factors facilitating Germany’s industrial development include:

1. Creation of the German customs union (Zollverein) unifying Germans and spurring economic development.
2. Large raw material deposits: iron ore from Alsace-Lorraine and coal from Ruhr and Saar mines.
3. Financial aid from the USA through the Marshall Plan after WWII.
4. Rapid population growth providing skilled and unskilled labour.
5. Well-developed transport and communication: railways, roads, canals.
6. Government support through investment encouragement, tariffs, and subsidies.
7. Revival of pre-WWII industrial base after the war.
8. Political stability post-WWII encouraging industrial growth.
9. Sufficient power from coal.
10. Markets in South America and the Far East.
11. Education based on science and technology producing skilled manpower.
12. Second unification of East and West Germany expanding industrial output.
13. Improved agricultural techniques increasing yields for processing industries.

The Impact of Industrialisation of Germany

1. Improved standards of living and purchasing power.
2. Developed transport and communication networks.
3. Became a strong power before WWI, joining European nations in colonial pursuits.
4. Diversified economy manufacturing vehicles, machinery, chemicals, electronics, and textiles for local and international markets.
5. Created employment opportunities in Germany and neighbouring states.
6. Encouraged growth of urban centres like Berlin and Warsaw.
7. Boosted foreign reserves through manufactured goods sales.
8. Expanded local and international trade.
9. Contributed to reducing inflation.
10. Further boosted foreign reserves through exports.

Japan

Japan’s industrialisation began in the late 19^th century after treaties with the USA. Compulsory primary and secondary education and establishment of universities followed. Many students studied abroad.

Japan fought wars with China and Russia (1894–1905) and sided with Britain, France, and Russia during WWI. In WWII, Japan attacked Pearl Harbour; the USA responded by bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. Despite this, Japan recovered economically and continued industrialisation.

Factors promoting Japan’s industrialisation include:

1. Adequate capital for research and development, aided by American post-WWII aid.
2. Ready internal and external markets.
3. Long political stability, especially post-WWII.
4. Developed transport and communication networks.
5. Improved industrial base after WWI and WWII.
6. Power from coal, uranium, and hydro-electric sources.
7. Available skilled and unskilled labour.
8. Abundant raw materials like iron ore and coal.
9. Hardworking population promoting industrial growth.
10. High-quality, affordable goods encouraging markets.
11. Natural harbours facilitating trade.
12. Political neutrality post-WWII, trading with all nations.
13. New taxation to fund industrialisation.
14. Government support for home market and tariffs on foreign goods.
15. Encouragement of foreign investment and overseas investments.

The effects of industrialisation in Japan

1. Improved standards of living.
2. Boosted foreign reserves through exports.
3. Recognised as a developed industrialised country.
4. Diversified economy from agriculture to industry.
5. Promoted trade using locally made ships.
6. Created industrial job opportunities.
7. Developed better transport and communication.
8. Japanese goods preferred for quality and affordability.

Industrialisation in the Third World

Brazil

Brazil’s industrialisation began in the late 19^th century and developed due to:

1. Large mineral deposits (iron ore, gold, bauxite, manganese) and raw materials like wood and agricultural products.
2. Government capital investment.
3. Technical and financial aid from the USA, developing heavy industries like steel works.
4. Cottage industries forming a basis for modern industries.
5. Transport and communication development via roads and railways.
6. Encouragement of foreign investors from Europe and the USA.
7. Five-year development plans promoting industrial growth.
8. World wars encouraging mass production of local goods.
9. Demand for Brazilian goods in Britain.
10. Nationalisation and supervision of industries.
11. Availability of coal, petroleum, and hydro-electric power.
12. Internal market for industrial goods.

Obstacles to the Industrialisation of Brazil

1. High poverty limiting industrial establishment and purchasing power.
2. Inadequate transport and communication despite government efforts.
3. Wealth concentrated in a minority group.
4. Population concentrated along the coast, causing labour shortages inland.
5. Constant inflation making goods expensive.
6. Accumulated foreign debts hindering progress.
7. Underexploited Amazon forest resources due to sparse population.

Impact of Industrial Growth in Brazil

1. Boosted foreign reserves.
2. Improved living standards due to reduced inflation and increased purchasing power.
3. Increased exports of manufactured goods.
4. Emergence as a leading industrialised third world country.
5. Modernised port facilities for exports.
6. Accelerated transport and communication development.
7. Created employment in heavy and light industries.
8. Encouraged urban growth along the coast, e.g., Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Recife.

South Africa

South Africa started as an agricultural country but industrialised after discovering gold and diamonds. Industries included textiles, iron and steel, chemicals, cement, and locomotives.

Factors contributing to industrialisation:

1. Availability of minerals like coal, gold, diamonds, silver, and iron ore.
2. Capital from mineral sales.
3. Power from coal and hydro-electric sources.
4. Transport and communication networks: railways, roads, air transport, telephones.
5. Encouragement of foreign investors in mining.
6. Skilled and unskilled labour from neighbouring states.
7. Local and international markets, especially after 1994 independence.
8. Political stability post-independence.
9. High-quality manufactured goods competing with imports.
10. Government support via tariffs on imports.

Factors that Hindered Industrialisation in South Africa

1. Majority African poverty limiting purchasing power.
2. International trade bans due to apartheid, limiting external markets.
3. Political instability during colonial rule discouraging investment.
4. Competition from developed nations’ goods.
5. High crime rates discouraging industrial investment.

India

Colonised by Britain, India supplied cotton and attained independence in 1947, thereafter focusing on industrial development.

Factors enabling industrialisation:

1. Raw materials like cotton and iron ore.
2. Well-developed infrastructure including transport and communication.
3. Existing cottage industries forming a growth basis.
4. Adequate power from coal, natural gas, oil, hydroelectricity, and uranium.
5. Large population providing skilled and unskilled labour; government training in technical skills.
6. Large internal and external markets.
7. Five-year economic plans starting in 1950.
8. State enterprises and private sector loans boosting industry.
9. Government encouragement of foreign investment.
10. Political stability post-independence.
11. Protective tariffs supporting local industries.

Impact of Industrialisation of India

1. Increased foreign exchange earnings from cheap manufactured goods.
2. Improved living standards and purchasing power.
3. Boosted agriculture through farm tools and machinery manufacturing.
4. Created employment opportunities.
5. Encouraged local and international trade.
6. Promoted urbanisation and expansion of cities like Bombay, Karachi, and New Delhi.
7. Increased revenue and diversified economy.
8. Technological advancement and nuclear power status.
9. One of the most industrialised third world nations.
10. Developed transport and communication networks.
11. Improved public services like education and healthcare.
12. Boosted cottage industries producing garments, plastics, shoes, hosiery, and household items.

Plastic buckets and shoes

Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution refers to the period of many inventions and discoveries resulting from improved knowledge and curiosity about the universe. Scientific inventions began before Christ. Many discoveries were made in agriculture, industry, and medicine, improving living conditions by solving problems.

Early civilizations in Greece, India, Iraq, Egypt, and China influenced early science. Greeks and Egyptians were great mathematicians; Pythagoras developed the right-angled triangle, Egyptians used geometry for pyramids and farming.

The Chinese discovered silk production, gunpowder, and paper. Indians introduced ‘Zero’ and decimal points in mathematics. The Iraq people (Sumerians/Mesopotamians) made advances in medicine, architecture, mathematics, and astronomy. During the Renaissance, scientific knowledge spread in Europe, followed by the Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions.

Notable scientists from the 15^th century include:

1. Nicolas Copernicus
Discovered that the earth orbits the sun in one year and rotates on its axis.

2. Galileo Galilei
Confirmed Copernicus’s theory using a telescope.

3. Sir Isaac Newton
Discovered gravity and the spectrum.

4. Antoine Lavoisier
Found air is composed of hydrogen and oxygen.

5. John Dalton
Developed the Atomic Theory and discovered colour blindness.

6. Michael Faraday
Discovered electricity and made a dynamo.

7. Thomas Edison
Invented the electric lamp.

8. Charles Darwin
Formulated the theory of evolution.

9. Edward Jenner
Developed the smallpox vaccine.

10. Louis Pasteur
Discovered microbes cause disease and decay; introduced pasteurisation.

11. Alexander Graham Bell
Invented the telephone.

12. George Stephenson
Invented the steam locomotive.

13. The Wright Brothers
Invented the first aeroplane.

Important Scientific Inventions in Agriculture

1. Jethro Tull
Invented the seed drill and horse-drawn hoe.

2. Robert Bakewell
Improved animal quality through crossbreeding.

3. Andrew Meikle
Invented the mechanical thresher.

4. Justus Von Liebig
Founded the modern fertiliser industry, discovering plants need nitrogen, phosphorus, and salt.

5. Cyrus McCormick
Invented the reaper for harvesting.

6. Sir John Bennet Lawes
Started a super phosphate fertiliser factory.

Impact of Scientific Inventions on Agriculture

1. Promoted agriculture with increased food production; fertilisers added nutrients, machinery aided ploughing, planting, harvesting, and threshing.
2. Improved farming techniques and livestock breeding.
3. Reduced manual labour, causing unemployment in agriculture.
4. Enabled food preservation and transport via refrigerators and canning.
5. Reduced crop destruction by pests and diseases through pesticides and fungicides.
6. Increased cultivated land and plantation farming.
7. Encouraged scientific research and invention for better breeds and machinery.
8. Diversified agriculture and economy.
9. Increased population growth due to better nutrition and lower death rates.
10. Caused rural-urban migration of unemployed agricultural workers, indirectly promoting agriculture.
11. Excessive fertiliser use reduced soil yields.
12. Indigenous crops and livestock replaced by exotic hybrids.
13. Inhalation of chemicals and pesticides causes respiratory and other diseases.

Important Discoveries in Industry

a) Textile industry inventions:

i) James Hargreaves
Invented the spinning jenny.

ii) Edmund Cartwright
Invented the power loom.

iii) Samuel Crompton
Invented the spinning mule producing high-quality threads.

iv) John Kay
Invented the flying shuttle.

v) Thomas Bell
Made a cylindrical calico printing machine.

vi) Eli Whitney
Invented the cotton gin removing seeds from cotton fibre.

b) Other industrial inventors:

i) Michael Faraday
Discovered electricity and made a dynamo.

ii) Benjamin Franklin
Proved lightning is electricity.

iii) Otto Hahn and Strassmann
Discovered nuclear energy.

iv) George Stephenson
Made the locomotive called ‘The Rocket’.

v) James Watt
Invented the steam engine.

Impact of Scientific Inventions on Industry

1. Improved living standards through exposure to industrial goods.
2. Created jobs, especially in textile industries.
3. Diversified economy beyond agriculture.
4. Introduced new energy sources like solar, atomic, nuclear, and electric power.
5. Enabled space exploration via rockets, satellites, and digital cameras.
6. Led to invention of dangerous weapons, increasing wars.
7. Revolutionised transport with engines, motorcars, planes, and locomotives.
8. Reduced labour burden with machines doing most work.
9. Computers improved efficiency in sectors like banking.
10. Encouraged trade due to demand for manufactured goods.
11. Caused pollution and health issues like tuberculosis.
12. Improved communication networks via Email and Internet.
13. Created highly industrialised countries becoming world powers.

Important Scientific Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine

1. Joseph Lister
Discovered carbonic acid as an antiseptic and developed antiseptic sprays for surgery.

2. William Morton
Discovered use of chloroform in surgery.

3. Edward Jenner
Invented the smallpox vaccine.

4. Louis Pasteur
Discovered bacteria cause disease; developed pasteurisation and cures for anthrax and rabies.

5. Sir Ronald Ross
Discovered mosquitoes carry malaria parasites; promoted drainage to prevent breeding.

6. Röntgen
Discovered X-rays for internal body imaging.

7. Alexander Fleming
Discovered penicillin antibiotic.

8. Dr Christian Barnard
Introduced heart transplantation.

Impact of Scientific Inventions on Medicine

1. Increased human life expectancy and population growth.
2. Discovered drugs reducing pain and curing diseases.
3. Invented medical machinery for diagnosis and treatment.
4. Established pharmaceutical industries creating employment.
5. Applied preventive measures like vaccination, eradicating many diseases.
6. Excessive drug use may cause resistance and health issues.

Factors Influencing Scientific Inventions in Africa and Other Developing Nations

1. Inadequate capital for scientific research.
2. Illiteracy limiting application of scientific principles.
3. Over-dependence on donor countries due to poverty.
4. Little emphasis on science education and lack of equipment.
5. Governments not prioritising funding for research.
6. Dependence on imported machinery reducing research incentives.
7. Lack of initiative among researchers discouraging innovation.

Review Questions

1. a) Identify the early sources of energy.
2. How was energy from wind used?
3. a) Give the uses of the following metals:
   • i) Copper
   • ii) Iron
4. Explain the effects of the spread of iron smelting in Africa.
5. What factors contributed to industrialisation in Britain?
6. What were the social and economic effects of industrialisation in continental Europe?
7. a) What is the scientific revolution?
8. b) Discuss the impact of scientific inventions on:
   • i) Agriculture
   • ii) Medicine
9. a) What are the main factors contributing to industrialisation of developed countries?
10. b) What are the major obstacles to industrialisation in developing nations?

Students’ Activities

1. Compare industries in developed countries and third world (developing) countries.
2. Discuss various discoveries and inventions promoting Industry, Medicine, and Agriculture in groups.