STYLISTICS AND COMMUNICATION IN ENGLISH

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

The term communication is defined as follows:

• Communication is the exchange of information and understanding between parts.
• Communication is the process of transferring information and understanding between parts.
• Communication is the transferring of information between parts, from a source or sender to a receiver through media.

From the above definitions, communication is characterized by the following:

• Communication is a process, not an event; it takes the form of continuity.
• Communication is a two-way process. It involves exchange of position or a role between a sender and receiver.
• Communication becomes complete where there is feedback (information from a receiver to a sender).
• Communication involves exchange of information (intangible things) and not goods. Sending tangible things is called transport/transportation, not communication.
• Communication requires medium (language) and channels.
• Communication is not only sending but also understanding between parts; this is the communication process.

Tools or Means of Communication and Their Categories

• Verbal tools (language)
• Non-verbal tools e.g. body language, signs, signals such as traffic lights, colours, etc. Therefore, the major tool of communication is language.

COMMUNICATION MODEL

The term model refers to a diagram or pictorial representation of a certain idea, fact, or process. Therefore, a communication model is a diagrammatic or pictorial representation of a communication process, more specifically verbal linguistic communication.

Communication model components:

• Speaker or encoder (spoken or television)
• Listener or receiver
• Writer (written or radio)
• Reader
• Dialogue, etc.

From the above model, a message originates from a person called the encoder or sender. The sender selects a language (e.g., English or Swahili), either spoken or written. Then the sender selects channels or means for message transmission. Finally, the message reaches the receiver who decodes (interprets) the message into an understandable idea or thought. The receiver then selects a medium and channels and sends feedback to the original speaker, completing the communication process.

Guide Questions

With the aid of the communication model, explain how communication takes place in human language.

COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN OR FAILURE

Communication breakdown or failure is a situation where the intended message is not delivered timely and effectively. It entails the following situations or circumstances:

1. Failure of a message to reach the intended/targeted receiver.
2. A message is misunderstood by the receiver.
3. A message arrives to the right receiver but not timely (arrives late) and therefore becomes useless.
4. Message passed through a wrong medium or channels.
5. Sender sends a wrong message, e.g., rumors.

EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN

There are several negative effects of communication breakdown, including:

• Conflict, fights, war, misunderstanding.
• Hatred, hostility, and anger against one another.
• Lack of trust and existence of suspicion.
• Destabilizing socio-economic activities.
• In the learning process, teachers and students fail to understand each other, leading to academic failure. It is also the source of strikes and boycotts in schools and colleges.

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Effective communication is a cure to communication failure/breakdown. It requires certain special skills to avoid the above dangers or risks. These skills are referred to as communication skills and are fundamental to effective communication.

Definition of Effective Communication

Effective communication can be defined as:

• A careful and timely sending/transferring of the right information and total understanding between parts.
• The process of sending the right information through the right media and channels to the right receiver at the right time.

Factors Influencing Effective Communication

The factors that influence effective communication are the same as those that can lead to communication breakdown. These factors are categorized into:

• Linguistic factors
• Psychological factors
• Environmental factors
• Social or cultural factors

A) LINGUISTIC FACTORS

These are language-related factors. They include:

1. Proper pronunciation.
2. Use of language according to the level of the audience.
3. Use of the right/appropriate register or style depending on the field of study or area of specialization, e.g., science, law, literature.
4. Use of appropriate dialect common to the audience.
5. Being clear and using common language; avoid bombastic words and unnecessary vocabulary.

B) PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

These are factors associated with attitude, interest, perceptions, and other feelings of the sender or receiver of the message. They include:

1. Avoid being judgmental or biased. We should not judge people’s personality, status, or history but the message they give us. That is, we should not judge a book by its cover but by its contents.
2. Cultivate interest when intending to communicate (to say, write, read, or listen); this promotes effective communication.
3. Psychological preparation is important when we want to communicate; we have to calm down from anger or emotions, otherwise, we may fail to communicate effectively.

Note: Tensions, frustrations, anger, hatred, emotions, etc., affect our communication and cause communication breakdown.

C) SOCIAL FACTORS

These are factors related to beliefs, traditions, ideology, customs, and norms. During communication, one has to be sensitive or aware of these issues to avoid offending others or creating hostilities. We need to be careful and respect other people’s beliefs, ideologies, traditions, customs, and norms for active communication.

D) ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

These are factors related to climate conditions and other environmental conditions. They include:

1. Noise
2. Rainfall
3. Wind
4. Temperature (heat or coldness)
5. Psychological interruptions/interference, e.g., speech interference, passing of people, vehicles, or animals.
6. Smell
7. Dust and other climatic extremes
8. Timing of information is also key to effective communication. If the above are not carefully analyzed, communication may fail.

Advantages of Effective Communication

Effective communication has the following advantages:

1. It promotes unity, cooperation, and solidarity in society.
2. It promotes peace, security, and order as disputes or conflicts are discussed amicably and compromises are reached peacefully.
3. It promotes social and economic development.
4. It facilitates understanding, e.g., in education or learning processes.
5. It saves time.
6. It saves resources (financial capital).

STYLISTICS

Stylistics is the study of differences or variations in language style, which depend on the situation in which the language is used and the effect the user wishes to create on the person he is addressing (addressee). It is important to understand the following key words in the definition above.

Variation

This refers to the different forms of the same language that are known or used. Any different form of the same language is called a variety.

Situation

This refers to the non-linguistic variable which makes the user choose a certain variety as appropriate. For example, the relationship existing between a user and addressee may cause the user to choose a variety which he finds appropriate.

Example

When we intend to create a good relationship with another person and therefore solicit a prompt favorable reaction, we may use polite language.

However, if we are at a higher position over another person, we may revert to commanding language to ensure that things are done promptly, e.g., a police inspector to a recruit.

TYPES OF VARIATION (CAUSES)

There are two major types of language variations:

1. Variation according to user (Dialect)
   This is caused by people belonging to a particular place or class in a large geographical or social scale.
2. Variation according to use (Register)
   This is the variation caused by the condition placed on the user due to the underlying situation.

Language Variations According to User

The characteristics of a user may cause language variations. This is especially true when we compare users of the same language but from two different circumstances. These lead to dialects and accents.

i. Dialect

A dialect is a language variety distinguished from another by differences in vocabulary and grammar. It is usually defined as a variation of language which contains typical idiosyncratic features particular to any individual, place, or social class.

A variety of language used by people from a certain geographical setting is called a regional dialect.

A variety of language used by a particular social group (upper class or lower class, educated or uneducated) is called a sociolect.

ii. Accent

An accent is the way a speaker pronounces a language in a way that speakers from a certain geographical area do, e.g., British accent, American accent. It is a way of pronouncing the words of a language that shows which country or area a person comes from.

Language Variation According to Use

The user of a language must choose language elements and structures to fit the situation’s requirements. These varieties of language resulting from different uses are called registers.

Field of Discourse (Domain)

This refers to the area of operation where the language activity takes place. This is basically the subject matter of the speech activity; it could be agriculture, physics, history, geography, etc.

The subject matter determines whether to use technical or non-technical language.

For example, in a medical seminar, a wide range of medical vocabulary and other medical technical terms will be expected to be used.

The language choice will be more formal, and language construction would therefore be expected to have longer sentences.

Mode of Discourse (Medium)

This refers to the medium of language activity; we therefore get the written and oral modes. The difference between the two is that written language is more organized with careful punctuation and sentence structures, while oral language is expected to be less organized with gap fillers, pauses, hesitations, slips of the tongue, ellipsis, etc.

Tenor of Discourse (Status)

This refers to the relationship between the user and addressee(s). It is in this that the user distinguishes between polite and impolite language or formal and informal styles, involving temporary causes, permanent or intimate forms of relationship, and the manner in which one behaves.

Styles of Registers Identified in Stylistics

1. Consultative/Common Core/Basic Style: Spoken anywhere at any time, even to a stranger while seeking information.

Example of Dialogue (Consultative)

Caro: Muumuu, excuse me, miss.

Stranger: Yes, may I help you?

Caro: Yes, I can’t seem to find the PPF tower.

Stranger: Oh! Actually, we are standing right opposite to it.

Caro (smiling): Oh, oh, I see one.

Caro: Thank you.

2. Casual: Among friends.

Example of Dialogue (Casual)

Noreen speaking to her friend Irene through the phone:

Irene: What’s up, girl? Tell me.

Noreen: You tell me.

Irene: Girl, please, I called you and you have nothing to say.

Noreen: Well, I didn’t ask you to call me.

Irene: Ha ah…. okay, goodbye.

3. Intimate: Spoken to more friendly/close partners, e.g., married couples.

Wife: Baby, please take the kids to school.

Husband: Thought that was your responsibility.

Wife: (Sweetly) But I am tired.

Husband: I always tell you not to look at me like that when you ask for something.

Wife: (Smiles) I don’t do it on purpose, you know.

Husband: Yes, right, fine, I will take them.

Wife: Love you, mean it.

Husband: Love you too.

4. Formal: Official, proper grammar.

Example of Dialogue (Formal)

At the Transform office, Mbezi:

Bundala: Cecy, would you bring me those files?

Cecy: Yes, boss.

(She takes them to Bundala’s office)

Bundala: I need you to make a call to Neringo and have him meet me at 12:00 noon sharp.

Cecy: Yes, boss.

(She departs)

Other Characteristics of Formal Language

• Proper punctuation
• Proper grammar
• Use of more polished vocabulary, e.g., poor health – impoverished, go down – descend

Frozen Style

This is used in particular fields of discourse such as literature, religion, and law. It is called frozen because it is usually never affected by changes as it retains its features.

In literature, the frozen style is mostly found in poetry rather than prose. In religion, it is shown by the use of special religious terminologies and archaisms. In law, it is indicated by the use of legal terms. Frozen style is always familiar to the people who use it.

Other Terms Used

Various features constitute peculiar features which make them be treated as varieties to be labelled. These include:

Standard Variety (Standard Dialect or Language)

This language variety has the highest status in the community or nation. It is usually based on the speech or writing of educated language speakers.

A standard variety is generally used in the news, media, and literature. It is the variety found in dictionaries and grammar books and is taught in schools and to foreign learners of the language.

Non-Standard Variety

This is marked by serious deviations from the so-called standard spoken variety. It is characterized by wrong pronunciations and grammar, sometimes with wrong language use.

Slang

This is the informal use of words and expressions that are more common in spoken language, especially by a given group of people. Slang words are always new, flashy, and popular but usually short-lived in use.

It is normally used in familiar talk among peer groups but is not accepted as good language in spoken or written form. The central reason for the use of slang is the desire for novelty, vivid emphasis, being knowledgeable, being up with the times, or a little ahead.

Examples of slang words include:

• Crib – cheat
• Contract – order to kill someone
• Dough – money
• Peg out – die

Jargon

These are words or expressions used by a particular profession or group of people and are difficult for others to understand. It is therefore a language of a special group, profession, or activity. It is usually compared with a ling. Any speech that sounds strange to people who do not understand it but is well understood by people of the special profession, such as doctors, lawyers, and other scientists, is associated with jargon.

Euphemism

This is a word or phrase used instead of another which is deemed embarrassing or unpleasant, sometimes to make it seem more acceptable. It is used to make speech less harsh or unpleasant. For example, the word “pass away” for die, “short call” for pee, etc.

Situations Calling for Different Language Varieties

1. Write a press release to the tobacco farmers at Tabora together with their agricultural officers concerning a disease affecting their crop and how to combat it.
2. A play written to encourage farmers at Mwika to plant more coffee due to its profitability.

In (1), we use formal language – official, proper grammar, standard language with high status in the community or nation. The language should incite awareness of the disease, its causes, effects, and ways to combat it.

In (2), language should be simple, casual – to farmers talking, formal – if it involves official scenarios such as a meeting and someone with facts is addressing the people, persuasive – emphasizing that coffee is likely to bring profit.

DIALOGUE: Study the Dialogue below

Setting: Village

Characters: Atu, Uswedi, Rwegashora, Wane, Rwega, Waguma

Swega: Are you from the farm?

Uswedi: No, I am from taking Rubisi.

Rwega: At this farming time?

Uswedi: Farming time!! What farming time are you talking about?

Rwega: I mean now; shouldn’t you be pruning your coffee?

Uswedi: Ha ha ha man Rwega, I thought you were a very understanding man… everyone is complaining about the coffee does not fill our packets.

Rwega: Uswedi, my friend, we are fast reluctant to implement what our officers tell us.

Wane/Atu: Hallo.

Uswedi: Hallo.

Rwega: Where are you young beautiful ladies coming from?

Wane: We are from SUA University; we are here on field studies.

Oswed: Oh, so you’re SWAT?

Atu: Ha ha! Yes, we are actually studying agriculture.

Wane: We happened to overhear your conversation; maybe we could be of help.

Uswedi: Rwega, your people (leaving).

Rwega: Uswedi, where are you going? Let us hear from them.

Wane: It seems you are having problems with coffee farming. This matter can be resolved by just using proper agricultural skills or techniques.

Atu: My colleague is right; the only key to better production is sufficient technology.

Uswedi: Sorry, what do you mean by sufficient technology?

Wane: It is applying the proper tools and methods which can help to yield high outputs. For example, this village has a shortage of water, but coffee can be produced here; you can employ irrigation as a solution.

Atu: Not only that, but also employ perfect tools and not hand hoes. By doing so, you will be able to earn more output considering the fact that coffee is very profitable.

Rwega: I think you have very good ideas, and I think it’s the right time to plan a seminar so that all Mwika coffee farmers will be aware.

ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT LANGUAGE STYLES

LANGUAGE STYLES/REGISTERS

The analysis is done by looking at language features used, which are either the features/levels:

• Lexical features (kind of vocabulary)
• Phonological features
• Graphological features
• Semantic features
• Syntactical features (grammar)

A. Conversational Style

This style is likely to have informal language.

Features Expected to Be Seen

a) Lexical Features/Level (Vocabulary)

Characterized by colloquial, idioms, and slang vocabularies.

Colloquial vocabulary refers to words used informally, especially in everyday conversation. Such words are avoided in formal writing or speaking. This is evident in casual style where people predominantly use this kind of language variety.

Example:

I told him to shove off.

Use your coconut.

Such words are used in spoken conversation.

Conversational style avoids technical terms. This style uses words that are not technical as it is naturally informal. Where technical terms are used, they are meant to be humorous (funny).

b) Syntactic Level (Grammar)

The grammar of conversational style is characterized by the following:

• Use of interjections: Words that express feelings or emotions of the people involved in the conversation.

Use of attention-calling devices to make listeners get what the speaker says. He or she may use attention-calling expressions such as:

• You see
• Look here
• I mean
• By the way
• I say
• You know what

Hesitations

When the speaker thinks about what to say in the act of utterance, these expressions are used as fillers for gaps:

… e eh …

… umm …

Use of Sentences Beginning with Coordinators

These are used because the sentences are said in response to what is being discussed.

Examples:

• But he didn’t attend the party.
• Or may go to Arusha.
• And they took everything in the shop.

Use of Non-Sentence Expressions

Examples:

• See you there.
• See you later.
• Sorry for disturbance.
• Pleased to meet you.

Use of Simple Sentences

Language of conversation is characterized by the use of sentences that are simple in that they lack subordination or use it very rarely.

Examples:

• I will be there.
• We shall see.
• He came.

Use of Short Responses

In conversations where we know the context very well, we may use short responses because we are aware that the speaker knows what is taking place when we are speaking.

Examples:

• Yes, I did (for – did you see him?)
• No, I can’t (for – can you drive?)
• To Arusha (for – where did you go last week?)

Short responses save time that could otherwise have been used.

Use of Contracted Forms

Examples:

• Aren’t you coming today?
• I’m sorry, I am not.
• What is wrong?

Use of Question Tags

Examples:

• Mary came here, didn’t she?
• You like honey, don’t you?
• Of course I do, don’t you?
• Yes, but not that much.

Lack of Clarity

Some of the information may not be said since the speakers know the premise of discussion, making it hard for a passerby to understand what they are saying.

Use of Incomplete Sentences

Example:

A: Yesterday I………………….

B: What did you?

A: I…. er….I

B: You took alcohol?

A: Not so —- er I mean ….I…….

Random Topics

When people meet and start talking, they do not pick a topic; it comes randomly.

Exercise:

Carefully write a dialogue between two street boys arguing over a possession. Then show the evidence of a conversational style in your dialogue according to:

1. Syntactical level
2. Lexical level of analysis

Suggested Answers

Dialogue

Setting: Street in town

Characters: Omar, Adam

Omar: You good?

Adam: Yeah.

Omar: You still have the Gush, don’t you?

Adam: … eeh ….mumm.

Omar: What?

Adam: No, not…. I mean, yes.

Omar: No, what?

Adam: I had it, yoh.

Omar: What do you mean you had it? Where is it right now?

Adam: Shit happened to me.

Omar: Don’t give me crap, where is the iish?

Adam: Think I lost it.

Omar: Aah!!!

Adam: I swear I had it before…..er….umm.

Omar: Before what? (grabs Adam’s neck)

Adam: Lis….te…n (he coughs with pain).

Omar: Give me answers, fool, that shit cost us our lives (he lets go of Adam’s neck).

Adam: (coughs while holding his neck) I will look for it.

Omar: Piss off, don’t trust you no more.

Adam: Told you, shit happens.

Omar: Shit my foot (he leaves).

Analysis under Syntactical Level

• Use of interjections such as “Aah!” to show pain, “What!” to show surprise (Omar’s reaction after Adam’s confession of losing the item).
• Use of hesitations such as “… eeh…. umm” (Adam hesitates to tell the truth).
• Use of short responses such as “yeah” (for – you good?).
• Use of question tags such as “You still have the crush, don’t you?”
• Use of incomplete sentences, e.g., Adam: “I swear I had it before …er..”, Omar: “Before what?”
• Lack of clarity: The dialogue does not give room for a passerby to tell what the argument is about; the topic is made secret through not mentioning it or use of words such as “crush” which not many are familiar with.

Analysis under Lexical Level

• The dialogue involves features that show the existence of lexical features.
• Use of colloquial vocabulary such as “piss off”.
• Use of slang vocabulary such as “oh” in the dialogue.

Graphological Features

Such conversations can be found recorded in novels, plays, short stories, and journal interviews.

The features found are as follows:

1. The use of exclamation marks to show emotion.
2. The use of italics, bolding, capitalization, and underlining to show unusual stress, especially emphasis.

Phonological Features of Conversational Style

Normally, conversational style is phonologically shown by the rise of the voice to a louder volume or higher pitch.

1. In the example below, the emphasis (loud volume words) is shown by the use of capital letters.

Example:

I wanted to go.

YOU DON’T WANT ME TO BUT I WILL.

2. Some people use a pronunciation that is dialectically identified to the direction of the people in the pronunciation.
3. In humorous style, some speakers imitate sounds of the people being quoted. In principle, this is an informal style in that it deals with matters which are not very serious.

1. FORMAL WRITTEN

• Is the English found in written material such as newspapers, political speeches, reports.
• It is a language style which lacks all the features found in conversational style.

2. FORMAL LITERARY STYLE

• Poems, novels, short stories, critical essays, etc.
• Unlike these works, plays use the conversational style.
• The language in formal literary styles involves emotion-evoking words.
• Imagery and other figurative expressions.

The following extract is from The Rape of the Pearl by Magala Nyago:

Winnie had been brought up a staunch Roman Catholic; her parents had been little short of fanatics. She could not recall a day when her parents had missed a Sunday mass unless they had been seriously ill. Even then, armed with a rosary, the invalid would keep on saying one after the other, the “Hail Mary,” the “Our Father,” and “Glory be to the Father” not less than seven times a day…

The extract above is full of figurative language:

• “Her parents had been”
• “Armed with a rosary”
• “Those two were more Catholic than the pope himself”

a. Lexical Features of a Formal Literary Style

• Use of symbolic words: most literary works use words that stand for things other than what they say.
• Use of emotion-evoking words; such words are found by the use of imagery.
• Readers are affected by words that appeal to various senses such as touch, smell, taste, sight, and hearing.
• These senses make the reader feel like participating in the sense being described.

b. Syntactic Features

• Use of simple and complex sentences done to maintain variety.
• Language of literary works uses both simple and complex sentences; complex sentences are mainly descriptive because they fully tell the readers about the characters as well as incidents and the setting at which such incidents took place.

Example:

THE TECHNICAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE STYLE

This is the language used by people of the same specialization such as lawyers, teachers, and doctors.

It can be referred to as jargon. It’s understood by specialists; therefore, outsiders like you and I cannot understand.

Words like photosynthesis, phyla, etc., can be understood by biologists; nouns, adverbs, morphemes by linguists.

General Features of Technical Style

1. It is characterized by the use of technical terms, i.e., words that are meant to be understood by specialists of a given field.
2. The use of impersonal language, i.e., most of the statements are passive (not interested in the subject but the action).
3. It sounds objective, e.g., “Fruits are served with lunch.”
4. The sentences are well connected to show a logical flow of ideas.
5. It shows headings and subheadings which make readers know which issue is included under the other.
6. Use of generalization.

Uses general statements that are mainly in simple present tense and are used as if they are principles, e.g., the Archimedes principle states that when an object is partially or totally immersed in water, the water displaced has the weight equivalent to that of the object immersed.

Various Examples of a Technical Style

Scientific Style

This is the style found in natural sciences such as biology, chemistry, physics, etc.

Lexical Features of the Scientific Style

1. Makes use of words that have Latin or Greek origin, e.g., diameter.
2. They use S.I. units for measurements which are internationally recognized, e.g., 4 kg, 45 dm.
3. Use numbers and formulas.

Example:

CaCO₃, CaO + CO₃

4. Use abbreviations for S.I. units.

Example: cm, kg

Structural Features of Scientific Style

1. The use of passive voice.

Passive voice is dominantly used to make the information being presented sound objective. The aim is to make scientific findings look different from opinions; the observers distance themselves from the action.

Example:

The experiment was carried out. A small amount of calcium carbonate was heated. Then a colorless gas was liberated. The gas was tested using a burning splint. The splint stopped burning. It was then concluded that the gas was carbon dioxide.

In the text above, we do not know who performed the experiment because the report is given in passive voice.

2. The use of past tense in reporting experimental findings. In the text above, the report is in the past tense. This is common in most experiments.
3. The use of complete sentences. The sentences are mostly complete and clear. These sentences are normally complex with connectors that show how ideas are logically organized.
4. Noun phrases are well modified for clarity. Noun phrases are accompanied with modifiers, e.g., “dense white fumes” where modified.

Graphological Features of Scientific Style

1. The use of diagrams and figures as well as tables for illustrations.
2. The use of symbols.

The language of science is full of symbols that stand for various measurements; they include things like ‡, Ÿ, ∏, H₂SO₄.

3. Well-patterned paragraphs as well as headings and subheadings.