HISTORY A LEVEL(FORM SIX) NOTES – THE RISE OF CAPITALISM IN EUROPE

HISTORY 2 STUDY NOTES (WWW.EDU.CO.TZ)

THE RISE OF CAPITALISM IN EUROPE

TRANSITION FROM FEUDALISM TO AGRARIAN REVOLUTION

Feudalism is a term derived from the Latin word “feudum” meaning fief or an estate of land held on behalf of a lord, and in return, the holder of the land offered military service and other services to the lord.

Thus, a feudal society is one in which the basic social and political structures are determined by the practice of fief holding. In other words, feudalism is based on holding land for renting.

A feudal mode of production, therefore, was based on the lord’s ownership of the land as well as incomplete or partial ownership of the peasants and serfs living on the land. The dependent serfs farmed and ran small economies on the land belonging to the feudal lords. Moreover, the relationship between the landlord and his tenants (serfs) was not only an economic one but also a social one. The tenant was a vassal of the lord, that is, he or she was bound to the lord by a special oath of loyalty.

The basic features of feudalism

There was a bounded relationship between the lords and tenants. The lord normally exercised the right of jurisdiction in the land which he held as a fief. The landlord was a governor of the fief.
There were antagonistic classes of lords and serfs. This was mainly due to exploitative tendencies of the lords. The lords exploited the serfs.
Under feudalism, the two dominant classes were feudal lords and tenants. Tenants were attached to the soil for the production of subsistence as well as surplus. The surplus was consumed mainly by the landlords.
Production was for subsistence, i.e., serfs produced mainly for food and less for exchange.
Feudalism in Europe went hand in hand with the building of armies. The armies and other willing classes – kings and nobles – supported themselves from the produce of their estates. Serfs were the producers in the lords’ or willing class estates.
In feudalism, the feudal activities were basically agrarian (for food production). Although few industries existed, many people were attached to the soil, that is, cultivating the soil to earn a living.

AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN

Agrarian revolution refers to the rapid changes which occurred in the agricultural sector. The changes were accompanied by the application of science and technology. In Britain, the agricultural revolution happened between the 16^th and 18^th centuries.

Before the agrarian revolution in Britain, agricultural production was very low. The low production of agricultural produce was partly caused by the land tenure. Land was divided, owned, and worked by serfs or peasants. Most of the land was also left fallow, i.e., a large part of the land was not under farming. In addition to low production in agriculture, the majority of the population in pre-agrarian revolution Britain engaged themselves in agriculture. It is estimated that eighty percent of Britain’s population were working on the land. Generally, there was low production in the agricultural sector before the agrarian revolution. However, there was an increment in agricultural production because of changes which constituted the agrarian revolution.

This was a drastic change in agricultural production through better techniques, methods, and land tenure. It started in 1450–1750 but reached maturity in 1801. The agrarian revolution started in the Netherlands-Holland and later in England.

Causes of Agrarian Revolution

The changes in agricultural production were caused mainly by two factors:

The rapid increase of population. The large population necessitated changes in the methods of producing crops and animals so as to cope with the high demand for food from the population. The population of Europe as a whole and Britain in particular was steadily increasing between the 15^th and 18^th centuries. For example, the population of Europe rose from sixty-nine million people to 188 million people between the 15^th and 18^th centuries. This increase in population mainly happened in the cities and towns.
The high demand for wool. The high demand for wool led to sheep commercial farming. The commercial sheep farming in the 16^th century was due to the demand for wool clothes.

Changes that took place during Agrarian Revolution

The agrarian revolution in Britain entailed the following changes:

Crop rotation: Unlike the pre-agrarian revolution times, farmers of the 16^th and 18^th centuries in Britain started to practice crop rotation. They rotated cereal crops with legumes and fodder crops. Legume crops such as peas, beans, and clovers restored nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen makes soil fertile. One example is Lord Townshend who in 1730 grew fodder crops in rotation with other crops.
Introduction of new crops: Crops such as maize, sweet potatoes, and fodder crops were introduced in England from the Americas. The introduction of fodder crops led to the constant supply of meat throughout the year because the presence of fodder crops made it possible to make hay for use during winter. This was a sharp departure from the pre-agrarian revolution era when all the cattle and other animals were slaughtered during winter for lack of feed.
Use of improved farm instruments: Examples of instruments which were used included the iron plough and Jethro Tull’s seed drill.
Extensive use of lime to neutralize soil acidity: In addition to liming, farmers applied fertilizers on their farms.
Land reclamation: In order to get more arable land, big farmers embarked on draining swampy land. For example, King Charles I of England financed a Dutch expert, Cornelius Vermigden, to drain Yorkshire and Cambridgeshire. Irrigation was also practiced during the agricultural revolution.
Improvement in animal breeding: Better horses, cattle, and sheep were raised. It was during the agrarian revolution that farmers kept animals for multipurpose. For example, a farmer in Leicester called Bakewell produced large quantities of beef and mutton to feed millions of people.
Enclosure of land: The agrarian revolution involved the eviction of serfs and peasants from the land for pasture, i.e., enclosure of the land.

HOW AGRARIAN REVOLUTION LED TO CAPITALISM IN EUROPE

The agrarian revolution had a number of contributions to the rise of capitalism in Europe:

Increase in the supply of food to the growing population in cities including workers in the factories.
The agrarian revolution, especially the enclosing of land, released or supplied cheap labor to industries. Many serfs and peasants who were evicted from the land for commercial sheep farming (enclosure) were employed in factories in towns and cities.
The agricultural changes also provided a market for industrial manufactured items. In other words, agricultural entrepreneurs bought industrial goods needed in the agricultural sector.
The change in agriculture supplied raw materials needed in industries. One important raw material the agrarian revolution provided to textile industries was wool. Farmers kept sheep commercially for selling wool to industries. In industries, the farmers accumulated capital which they invested in industries and trade.
The agricultural revolution also marked the end of small-scale or peasant production. Peasant production was replaced by capitalist farmers.

ENCLOSURE SYSTEM

This means consolidation of scattered arable land and common land into a simple compact area of land that is fenced.

Different processes of Enclosure System

Enclosure of common land. This was the enclosure of waste land. The process of enclosure of waste land and common land was carried out in the 16^th and 17^th centuries. Sometimes it was an agreement between villages.
Enclosure of landlords between 1475 – 1570. This was the period when there was an increase in wool demand due to the expansion of wool.
Enclosure of land into strips. This was done by purchasing land from the farmers or owners.

Impacts of the introduction of the Enclosure System in Britain

Freeing of labor from land. Laborers were free to sell their labor at their own discretion.
Migration of people.
Peasants were deprived of the right to own land (common land).
Laborers were turned into commodities.
Rise of unemployment due to emergence of landless people.
Made capitalists own both rural and urban economy (industries and agriculture).
Led to the rise of proletarians.

RISE OF MERCANTILISM

Mercantilism

It refers to large-scale trade or commercial trade conducted overseas.

Mercantilism is the first stage of capitalism that appeared during the 15^th century whereby trade and commerce were conducted by European countries with the continents of Africa, Asia, and America through overseas trade. Silver (precious metal) was used as the coin. It is the period during which feudalism collapsed as a result of long-distance trade conducted between Western European countries and other continents in the 15^th century.

Or, mercantilism is the first stage of capitalism whereby its economic system was based on trade and commerce conducted through overseas trade during the 15^th to 18^th centuries. During this trade, countries attracted themselves to the use of precious metals (gold and silver) in European transactions.

MAIN FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF MERCANTILISM

National Unification
Unifying small states to form one strong state for expansion of internal market, removal of trade barriers, and the use of raw materials and other sources available in the same nation. For example, England, Wales, and Scotland joined to form the United Kingdom (Great Britain).
Bullionism
Adaptation and application of gold and silver as the medium of exchange because gold and silver were used as coins in European transactions; hence European merchants struggled more and more to get gold and silver from different parts of the world like Zimbabwe, Ghana, etc.
Protectionism
European countries protected trade whereby each country protected its internal market and natural resources. This was done to protect the interest of trade by not allowing other European countries to compete with them. For example, the United Kingdom protected its internal market by enacting navigation acts and imposing trade barriers such as customs duties and tariffs.
National rivalry and militarism
During mercantilism, many European countries intensified their enmity among themselves which brought constant military confrontation. For example, Britain fought many wars with France, Spain with Portugal for economic interests. Britain decided to develop navy forces during the rule of the Tudor monarchy to pirate the wealth of other European merchants for the development of capitalism in Britain.
Colonialism
Many European countries began to look for economic interests in other countries in different parts of the world. The aim was to colonize countries for economic interests such as raw materials, labor, markets, and areas for investments. For example, the Dutch at the Cape of South Africa in 1652 wanted to control and unite South Africa; Spain and Portugal wanted to control Australia and Canada.
Banking sector/financial institutions
These financial institutions provided loans and credit to European merchants to continue conducting overseas trade and development of science and technology, especially marine technology, shipbuilding, compass direction, compass bearing, etc. These institutions included Barclays Bank and the House of Lloyds.

FACTORS/FORCES/CAUSES OF THE RISE OF MERCANTILISM

There were various factors that led to the rise of mercantilism, they are as follows:

Internal trade (inter trade and craft)
The development of guilds and craftsmen during the period of collapse of European feudalism led to the rise of mercantilism because commodities produced by craftsmen and people who were involved in guilds accelerated internal trade. For example, ornaments, plates, mirrors were later exported to other parts of the world, particularly Africa.
Periodic exhibitions among European nations
This promoted the existence of overseas trade among European countries, Africa, Asia, and America because the new commodities exhibited and new technology acted as the acceleration of mercantilism as merchants and other people from different parts of the world were interested in the commodities exhibited.
The development of marine technology with compass direction and compass bearing
During the 15^th century, Europe witnessed rapid changes in scientific curiosity and inquiry. The scientific revolution took firm roots. Marine technology among European nations enabled merchants to sail even deep sea. Nations and merchants constructed large ships which could carry bulky materials such as cotton, tobacco, and minerals. Merchants benefited greatly from marine technology as they could sail to various parts of the world.
Development of financial institutions and insurance companies
These provided loans, credit, and services to European merchants to continue trading activities. The role played by these institutions accumulated more wealth which was used for investment in economic sectors, hence the rise of mercantilism.
The rise of strong states and political revolutions
This provided security among merchants. For example, after the English revolution which removed King Charles I & II from power, the Tudor monarchy rose. King Henry the Navigator facilitated the rise of mercantilism by providing loans and credit. In France, after King Louis was removed from power, the French managed to get involved in merchant trade.
The role played by the enclosure system
Brought by the agrarian revolution, it played a great and important role towards the development of mercantilism because large-scale plantations were established and output of agricultural industrial raw materials like wool and wheat flour increased. These agricultural raw materials increased manufactured goods in industries which were needed by European merchants.
Geographical discovery of the new world by Christopher Columbus on 24.10.1492
Led to the establishment of plantations and mines in America, Canada, Peru, Colombia, etc. The establishment of these needed slave labor from Africa after the failure of the Red Indians and the expressiveness of European criminals and prisoners. Hence, this led to the establishment of mercantilism because Europeans were in need of raw materials.
Profitability of unequal exchange
During this period, Europeans gained more wealth by using illegal ways like piracy and kidnapping. They also sold commodities of low value and unsellable items in Europe to Africa, such as mirrors, while obtaining high-value items like ivory from Africa. This led to the rise and development of mercantilism.
Crusade wars
These were religious wars between Europeans (Christians) and Arabs (Muslims) in the Middle East near Turkey to control trade and capture cities. This made the way insecure for European traders, and Arabs controlled trade routes, increasing tariffs on European traders. This forced Europeans to find alternative routes to reach India (Asia) and Africa for conducting trade, hence the development and rise of mercantilism.

IMPACTS OF MERCANTILISM IN EUROPE AND AFRICA

Western Europe and Africa had a relationship which ensured the transfer of wealth from Africa to Europe. According to W. Rodney in his book “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa” (1972), Africa helped to develop Western Europe while Europe underdeveloped Africa. Trade helped Europe to achieve numerous developments; North America also benefited from mercantilism while Africa did not.

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IMPACTS OF MERCANTILISM IN EUROPE

Gold and silver accumulated during this period played a very important role in expanding capitalist capital in the economy of Western Europe because it was gold and silver that determined the value of capitalists to develop in terms of money.
Trade sped up European technological development. For example, trade helped Europeans develop shipbuilding from the 15^th to 19^th centuries, where sea-going vessels of different sizes were designed for slave trade and carrying raw materials from America to Europe and later carrying commodities to other parts of the world where markets were available.
Mercantilism led to the rise of seaport towns like Liverpool and Bristol. In these seaport towns, manufacturing centers like Lancashire developed, depending on the growth of the port or river.
It sped up the development of the industrial sector; industries such as textile, flour milling, and shipbuilding developed. This helped European countries develop capitalism.
The capital derived from mercantilism helped strengthen transitional links within the Western European economy. For example, sugar from Caribbean islands was exported from England to France and other parts of Europe.
Mercantilism continued to be a source for capital accumulation by European merchants, whereby the capital was invested in banks, industries, transport, and communication for European development. Capital accumulation was possible due to exploitation of African resources during mercantilism.

IMPACTS OF MERCANTILISM IN AFRICA

Mercantilism led to the rise and fall of some African states. States like Songhai, Mali, Ghana, and Benin grew strong during Trans-Saharan trade but collapsed after the establishment of the triangular slave trade. Some states like Dahomey grew strong because their wealth depended on this trade.
It led to a state of fear and insecurity among Africans, especially in West Africa. African leaders helped European merchants capture fellow Africans and sell them as slaves. The introduction of guns brought political instability as Africans fought among themselves for European interests.
Mercantilism destroyed African trade established among Africans for their own interests, such as long-distance trade and Trans-Saharan trade, which was changed to benefit Europeans.
It introduced unequal exchange, where Europeans benefited due to the value of commodities and raw materials taken from Africa like rhinoceros horns, tortoise shell, coconut oil, ivory, and slaves, while Europeans brought low-value goods to Africa such as daggers, empty bottles, ornaments, cigarettes, and Portuguese wine.
Mercantilism led to stagnation of African science and technology, especially local industries and productive forces. The slave trade also killed science and technology.
It led to the decline of African agricultural production because Africans were in a state of fear, insecurity, and political instability, preventing them from settling and engaging in agriculture, leading to famine and hunger.
Mercantilism led to the introduction of slave trade, causing depopulation of the African continent as many young and energetic Africans were taken as slaves to work in mines and plantations in America.
It led to the destruction of African culture as Europeans introduced their culture, such as eating styles, dancing, and marriage customs, which caused Africans to ignore their own culture and adopt European ways.

CONTRIBUTION OF MERCANTILISM TO THE RISE OF CAPITALISM IN EUROPE

Mercantilism led to the accumulation of capital among Europeans, which was invested and reinvested in economic sectors like banks, industry, transport, and communication, leading to the rise of industrial capitalism.
It led to the development of financial institutions and insurance companies that facilitated capitalism by providing loans, credit, and services to European merchants involved in overseas trade.
Mercantilism led to the development of towns, cities, and seaport towns such as Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool, Lisbon, and Paris, which became centers of trade and manufacturing, attracting many Europeans.
It led to the advancement and development of science and technology, especially maritime technology like shipbuilding, compass bearing, and compass direction, facilitating overseas trade.
Mercantilism provided cheap labor in European plantations, mines, and industries. African slaves were taken in large quantities to America to work in plantations and mines, contributing to industrial growth in Europe.
It provided raw materials needed for European development, such as cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, and sisal, which were transported to Europe for manufacturing.
Mercantilism created internal and external markets for European industrial goods, with European goods sold in Europe, Africa, and Latin America.
It led to the agrarian revolution during the 16^th century, where European merchants invested in agriculture using wealth obtained from overseas trade, especially unequal exchange.
Mercantilism led to the emergence of strong military states to defend and protect national wealth, merchants, and boundaries, e.g., the UK during the Tudor monarchy.
It led to the rise of European nationalism, where small European nations united to expand markets, remove trade barriers, protect merchants, and use resources collectively, e.g., the formation of the United Kingdom.

CONDITIONS WHICH FORCED MERCHANTS TO CAPTURE SLAVES FROM AFRICA TO AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

Mercantilism
This economic system involved conducting overseas trade searching for gold and silver. Mercantilism led to the rise of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, which involved Africa, America, and Europe. During this trade, millions of Africans were shipped to America to provide cheap labor in mines and plantations.
Booming capitalist agriculture
European capitalists established plantations of coffee, tea, sugar cane, cotton, and tobacco, which required massive supplies of cheap labor. The supply of white labor was insufficient, leading to the importation of slaves from Africa.
Industrial revolution in Europe
The industrial revolution created a need to expand home markets. Merchants and ruling classes feared underpopulation, prompting campaigns against the use of white laborers and the importation of African slaves.
African slaves were cheap
Money paid for white labor for ten years could procure African slaves for life. White workers were expected to acquire land after contracts, while African slaves were legally prevented from owning land, necessitating the use of African labor.
Discovery of maritime technology
Maritime technology eased transportation and helped merchants locate Africa, enabling the transport of African people to the New World.
Inability of the indigenous people
Native Americans (Red Indians) were initially used for labor but died in large numbers due to plague, leading to the importation of African slaves.
Discovery of the New World
Christopher Columbus’s discovery in 1492 led to the establishment of plantations and mining centers demanding cheap labor, prompting the importation of African slaves.

THE ABOLITION OF THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade involved America, Africa, and Europe. Africa was the source of cheap labor in the form of slaves, America was the source of raw materials, and Europe was the source of manufactured goods.

The main participants were Britain, France, Holland, and Portugal. Britain led the abolition of the slave trade in the first half of the 19^th century. In 1807, Britain passed a bill making slave trade illegal in all her colonies, and in 1833, a law was passed for the emancipation of all slaves in the British Empire.

Forces that compelled the British to abolish the Trans-Atlantic slave trade

A. Economic reasons

Capitalist production
Capitalist production involves two classes: capitalists who control the means of production and workers employed by capitalists. For effective employment, workers must be free and not slaves.
Need for markets
The industrial revolution increased production of industrial products that lacked demand, forcing Britain to abolish slave trade to create markets in Africa for manufactured goods.
Need for raw materials
Increased demand for raw materials in Britain due to industrial growth necessitated abolition of the slave trade so Africans could produce needed raw materials.
The use of machines
Machines replaced human labor, making slave labor redundant. Owners campaigned for abolition of the slave trade.
French and British competition over sugar production
British monopoly on sugar was challenged by cheaper French sugar, making slave labor in British West Indies less useful and prompting abolition.

B. Social reasons

Religious reasons

Religious bodies argued that slave trade was against God’s will, as all people were created equal. Christians denounced slave trade and called for its abolition.

French Revolution of 1789

The French Revolution promoted ideals of fraternity, liberty, and equality. Philosophers like Rousseau campaigned against slave trade as contrary to these ideals.

Humanitarian movements

Humanitarians such as Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson played roles in abolition efforts, highlighting the suffering caused by slave trade.

Effects of the abolition of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade

Foundation of Sierra Leone and Liberia
These areas were established as settlements for freed slaves who received freed slaves from America.
Introduction of legitimate trade
Legitimate trade involved buying and selling natural resources like palm oil and cocoa, facilitating acquisition of raw materials and markets after the industrial revolution.
Exploitation of hinterland
Colonial powers penetrated the interior of Africa searching for raw materials and markets after abolition of slave trade.
Increased spread of Christianity
Christianity spread to compensate for the ills of slave trade and to counter the spread of Islam in West Africa.
Increased provision of social services
Colonial powers increased education to train Africans as producers of raw materials and to create markets for European goods.
Improvement of the agricultural sector
Better farming methods were introduced to increase production of raw materials, though food crop production was discouraged.
Linguistic studies
Colonial powers studied native languages to translate the Bible and convert Africans to Christianity.

TRANSITION FROM COTTAGE SYSTEM TO FACTORY SYSTEM

CAPITALISM

Capitalism refers to the class mode of production consisting of capitalists who own the major means of production and workers or proletarians who are deprived of the means of production in order to make a profit. Feudalism did not collapse at once; the decline was gradual and caused by various factors.

Factors that contributed to the rise of the factory system (industrial capitalism)

Growth of population
There was a rapid increase in population, especially in Britain at the end of the 15^th century, caused by better medical facilities and early marriages. In 1485 AD, Britain had three million people. This increase contributed to the rise of capitalism by providing a ready market for manufactured goods and cheap labor in industries.
Growth of towns
Towns like Manchester and Liverpool attracted many people who undertook trade and commerce, contributing to the demise of feudalism.
Agrarian revolution
Improvements in agriculture, such as crop rotation and use of machines, increased production and wealth, which financed the industrial revolution and the rise of capitalism.
Political revolutions
Revolutions like the English Revolution of 1640 and the French Revolution of 1789 destroyed feudalism and put the means of production in the hands of capitalists.
Commercial revolution
Fundamental changes characterized by the development of international trade and the rise of the merchant class. Through international trade, European countries, especially Britain, acquired capital to finance the industrial revolution.
Monetization of the economy
The introduction of money as a medium of exchange played a great role in the rise of capitalism by financing the industrial revolution.
The Hundred Years’ War
The war between Britain and France led to British plundering of French towns, enriching themselves and contributing to primitive accumulation of capital.
Scientific and technological revolutions
Major technological changes in Europe paved the way for the rise of capitalism by expanding commodity production and internal trade.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN (1750s – 1850s)

The industrial revolution is the sum total of radical changes in various sectors of the economy, especially industry, transport, banking, and technology. New machines for mass production were invented; large-scale industries replaced cottage industries.

Why Britain was the first country to industrialize in Europe

The industrial revolution began in Britain and later spread to other countries such as France, Germany, Spain, and Belgium. Britain was referred to as the “workshop of the world.”

The causes of the industrial revolution are classified into internal and external factors:

Internal Factors

Growth of the internal market
Rapid population growth during the 18^th century provided ready markets for industrial products.
Improvement of the transport systems
Construction of roads, railways, and canals provided cheap and reliable transport supporting industrial growth.
Non-governmental interference
The British government pursued laissez-faire policies, allowing the economy to operate freely, encouraging investment.
Peace and stability
The monarchy maintained peace and stability conducive to industrial activities.
Free trade system
Britain had a large free trade unity without internal tariffs, encouraging industrial activities.
Geographical advantage
Britain had abundant coal and iron resources essential for industrialization.
Technological advantages
Britain was the first country to undergo technological advancements, including the steam engine and water frame.

External Factors

International links
British companies traded widely, acquiring profits used to build industries.
Existence of many colonies
Colonies provided raw materials and markets for industrial products.

The industrial revolution led to drastic economic and social changes in Britain, replacing agriculture as the main source of wealth and sparking competition for global control.

Effects of the industrial revolution in Europe

Development of industrial towns
Towns like Lancashire, Birmingham, and Derbyshire developed due to industries attracting people.
Environmental degradation
Industrial pollution led to chemical contamination and diseases.
Development of free trade policy
Free trade allowed transfer of goods without barriers, influenced by industrial production.
Rise of proletariat/working classes
Workers sold their labor for low wages under poor conditions, leading to movements like Luddism and Chartism.
Introduction of democracy
Absolute monarchies were replaced by parliamentary systems.
Economic hardship
Workers faced low wages and long hours, with children working from a young age.
Development of slums
Overcrowding and poor sanitation led to slum formation in towns.

Why Britain was referred to as the workshop of the world

Between the 1750s and 1870s, Britain produced commodities for the world, especially during the Victorian era.

First to undergo the industrial revolution
Source of technology and innovation
Largest colonial empire
Huge economy
Leading exporter of industrial goods
Stable government
Geographical advantage
Existence of a fairly developed banking system
Good transport system

FORMATION OF WORKING CLASS MOVEMENTS

The working class movement was formed after the proletariat emerged in Europe. Causes included unemployment, exploitation, low wages, long working hours, and lack of land.

Factors that contributed to the rise of the working class movement

Rise of industrial cities
Massive unemployment
Poor working conditions
Agrarian revolution
Napoleonic wars

LUDDISM (1811 – 1830)

Also known as the Luddite movement, it was the first industrial working class movement in Britain. The movement focused on breaking machines, believing machines caused their exploitation.

Aims/Objectives of Luddism

Break newly invented machines to protest low wages and unemployment.
Fight for better working conditions.
Fight for higher wages.
Demand better social services like pensions and medical fees.

Factors that contributed to the failure of Luddism

Failure to identify the true enemy (capitalists, not machines).
Illiteracy and lack of clear ideology.
Use of wrong methods (breaking machines).
Disunity among members.
Absence of strong leadership.
Inadequate funds.
Concentration in urban areas only.
Lack of consistency.

Significance of the Luddite movement

Enlightened workers about exploitation.
Development of more working class movements.
Unity of workers.
Achievement of some rights (holidays, wage increases, prohibition of child labor).

THE CHARTISM MOVEMENT (1838 – 1848)

Chartism was a British working class movement named after the People’s Charter drafted in 1838. It was the first national working class movement.

The movement arose due to industrial capitalism and worsening working conditions.

Factors that contributed to the rise of Chartism

Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834
Economic slump of 1837 – 1838
Collapse of the Grand National Trade Union
Disappointment with the Reform Bill
Increase in indirect taxes
The Corn Law of 1815

Tactics of Chartism

Petitions
Campaigns through newspapers and mass meetings
Strikes

Factors that contributed to the decline of Chartism

Revival of the economy
Disunity
Heavy government repression
Hostility of capitalists
Inadequate funds
Lack of permanent members

Significance of the Chartist movement

Cooperation among workers
Formation of trade unions
Development of democracy
Introduction of socialist ideology
Formation of the Labour Party
Awakening of workers
Attainment of some demands (payment of MPs, secret ballot, abolition of Corn Law)
National in scope

TRADE UNIONS / NEW MODEL UNION

Trade unions are workers’ associations that fight for increased wages and better working conditions. They are class struggle institutions formed by skilled and professional workers.

Example: Amalgamated Society of Engineers (ASE) in Britain.

Tactics of trade unions

Collective bargaining
Use of strikes

Features of trade unions

Skilled members
National in scope
Use of strikes as a last resort
Proper leadership
Financially sound
Focus on economic well-being of workers

Significance of trade unions in Britain

Introduction of unity and solidarity
Defended workers’ rights
Formation of a political party (Labour Representation Committee)
Fought for women’s rights
Emergence of skilled workers
Achievement of some rights (reduced working hours, minimum wage, parliamentary representation)
Promotion of non-violence
Encouraged professionalism

THE POLITICAL FORCES THAT EXPLAIN THE RISE OF CAPITALISM

These forces include:

The English Revolution of 1640
The French Revolution of 1789

PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETY

Drastic political revolutionary changes took place between 1640-1689 led by Oliver Cromwell against monarchy governments under King Charles I (1648) and James II (1685) because they were against the people.

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION

Before the political revolution, Britain experienced various wars such as the Hundred Years’ War between France and Britain and the War of the Roses between the Northern Kingdom of Lancashire and Southern Kingdoms (1455-1485).

The English Revolution of 1648 to 1658 was a gradual change influenced by several factors including absolutism under monarchs like Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward, Mary I, Elizabeth, James I, Charles II, and James II. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 involved no bloodshed and replaced James II peacefully.

THE GROUP CATEGORIES OF THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION

THE PURITAN REVOLUTION
Took place in 1648, organized by Puritans led by Oliver Cromwell to overthrow Tudor monarchy. King Charles I was publicly assassinated.
THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION
Religious revolution in 1680 organized by religious bodies opposing King James II for not obeying Anglican Church principles. James II abdicated peacefully in 1688.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE/CAUSES OF THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION (1648-1688)

The theory of divine right of kings
Religious conflict
King’s extravagance
The role of Oliver Cromwell
Conservativeness of the feudal mode of production
The role of English philosophers
Dismissal of the parliament

IMPACT / SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISM

Led to the Industrial Revolution in Britain; the middle classes rose as a powerful class promoting trade and industry.
Brought freedom of worship.
Stimulated other revolutions like the French Revolution.
Led to development of a single currency facilitating trade.
Ended absolute monarchy and dictatorship, establishing constitutional monarchy.
Promoted free internal and external trade.

CONTRIBUTION OF ENGLISH REVOLUTION TO THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY IN BRITAIN

Introduced multiparty political system (Conservative and Liberal parties).
Emergence of shared government between common people and existing government.
Freedom of worship.
Respect for human rights.
Realistic constitution and rule of law.
Freedom of debate and expression.
Spread ideas of democracy to other countries like France.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795)

The French Revolution was a drastic political change led by peasants and workers to overthrow the Bourbon monarchy under King Louis XVI due to absolutism and exploitation.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

The French Revolution was organized by peasants and workers to overthrow the despotic Bourbon dynasty. The population was divided into peasants, bourgeoisie, nobility, and clergy.

CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Unfair government system
King’s extravagance
Influence of great French philosophers
Social and political inequality and heavy taxation
Influence of American War of Independence

CONTRIBUTION OF FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE RISE OF CAPITALISM

Elimination of feudalism (August 4, 1789)
Led to industrialization
Development of nationalism, solidarity, and unity
Overthrow of the Catholic Church and monarchy
Development of infrastructure (roads, railways)
Promotion of free enterprise and trade
Establishment of agrarian revolution and abolition of subsistence agriculture

CONTRIBUTION OF FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY

Emphasized respect for individual rights and new constitution
Planted ideals of human rights, equality, and liberty
Emergence of shared government
Promotion of freedom of mass media and expression
Development of nationalism and solidarity

THE DEMOGRAPHIC REVOLUTION AND SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

The Scientific Revolution

The scientific revolution was a period of major technological changes in Europe between 1540 and 1640, involving mathematics, experimental methods, and practical scientific knowledge, paving the way for the industrial revolution and rise of capitalism.

Key discoveries included:

Establishment of contact between Europe and Asia, leading to improvements in textile industries.
Break of the Crusade wars, spreading technology to Western Europe.
Use of coal and iron as major power sources, replacing windmills.
Exploration of new parts of the world, accelerating discoveries.
Invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s, revolutionizing production.
New methods of iron production using coke.
New techniques in weaving and spinning cotton and wool.
Invention of the railway locomotive by Murdock in 1792.

Role of science and technology in the industrial revolution

Improved transport system (railways)
Increased production levels through machines
Development of internal trade
Destruction of serfdom as people moved to towns
Collapse of cottage industries
Rise of capitalist class
Rise of free trade

The Demographic Revolution

The demographic revolution refers to fundamental changes in population size in Europe between the 17^th and 18^th centuries. For example, Britain’s population doubled from 12 million in 1760 to 24 million in 1831.

Factors explaining population growth include:

Improved medical services reducing death rates
Early marriages increasing birth rates
Availability of enough food supply
Political stability
Better sanitation

Role of demographic revolution in the rise of capitalism in Europe

Provided a ready market for industrial goods
Provision of cheap labor
Stimulated inter-regional trade
Development of towns
Destruction of the feudal mode of production
Enabled effective and strong capitalist government

Impacts of the Demographic Revolution on the development of capitalism in Europe

Availability of markets
Growth of towns and cities
Emergence of researchers and inventors
Availability of labor supply
Emergence of working class
Provision of effective capitalist government

THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY IN EUROPE

Background to the Rise of Democracy in Europe

Democracy is a system of government by the people and for the people. It is a form of government in which all people can choose their leaders and hold them accountable for their policies and conduct in office.

Democracy entails basic human rights, free and fair elections, and equality before the law.

Origin of Democracy in the World

Democracy originated from the Greek words “Demos” meaning rule of the people. It was first practiced in ancient Greece around 300 BC as a direct democratic system. Due to population growth, indirect democracy (representatives) was later adopted.

Democracy spread to other parts of the world, especially England and France, achieved through revolutions in the 17^th and 18^th centuries, and later to the USA.

Principles that governed politics in Europe before the rise of democracy

Absolutism
Power was held by few individuals, often hereditary. Kings were above the law and could imprison individuals arbitrarily.
Divine right of the king
Monarchs claimed power was given by God and were answerable only to God.
Feudal order/feudalism
Society was structured by land tenure with privileged classes like landlords, clergy, and nobles.
Church and state inseparable
The church influenced state decisions; official religions were enforced.

The English Revolution (The Glorious Revolution) 1640 – 1689

The English Revolution led to the collapse of feudalism and absolutism in Britain. The commercial bourgeoisie sought to make the crown independent of landlords. Conflicts over common land and enclosure system occurred. The revolution replaced the Catholic king James II with Protestant William III and passed the Bill of Rights.

Causes of the English Revolution

Heavy taxation
Principle of divine right of the king
Role of English philosophers like John Locke
Role of Oliver Cromwell
Enclosure system
Emergence of classical economists
Religious conflicts
Emergence of commercial bourgeoisie class
Maintenance of discriminative classes

Role of the English Revolution in the rise of capitalism in England

Introduction of free trade
Seizure of political power by merchants
Unification of England
Abolition of serfdom
Control of the church
Land consolidation

Impacts of the English Revolution

King became a ceremonial leader; prime minister became head of government
Overthrow of absolute monarchy; parliamentary government controlled by capitalists
Capitalists possessed economic and political power, promoting trade and industry
Royal army under government control
Government funds controlled by parliament
Complete dismantling of feudalism
Accumulation of wealth through primitive accumulation
Revolution caused deaths and destruction

Contribution of English Revolution to the Rise of Democracy in Britain

Multiparty political system
Emergence of shared government
Freedom of worship
Respect for human rights
Realistic constitution and rule of law
Freedom of debate and expression
Spread of democratic ideas

The French Revolution of 1789 – 1799

The French Revolution was a drastic political change overthrowing the Bourbon monarchy and establishing a republican government.

Causes of the French Revolution

Financial crisis
Despotic aristocracy
Weak character of King Louis XVI
French class structure
Intellectual movements
American War of Independence
Economic crisis
Dismissal of financial controllers
The march of the women

In conclusion, by 1789, the conditions for revolution were ripe, and the middle class mobilized to lead the revolution.

Effects of the French Revolution

Elimination of feudalism
Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
Development of social infrastructure
Introduction of unity and equality before the law
Development of nationalism
Establishment of republican government
Control of the church
Abolition of slave trade

The 1848 Revolutions in Europe

Known as the year of revolutions, mainly in France and the Austrian Empire, opposing the Vienna settlement of 1815.

Common features of the 1848 revolutions

Reaction against the Vienna settlement
Urban-based revolutions
Lack of mass mobilization
Reaction against the side effects of the industrial revolution
Promotion of French revolutionary ideals
Short-lived revolutions

Causes of the 1848 revolutions in Europe

Nationalism
Liberal constitutions
Widespread discontent
Economic problems
Role of socialists
Natural calamities
Chain reaction from France

Conclusion

The 1848 revolutions, though largely unsuccessful, laid the groundwork for future nationalist and liberal leadership, leading to unifications in Italy and Germany.

Role of the 1848 revolutions in the rise of democracy

Establishment of constitutions
Demise of feudalism
Rise of national consciousness
Overthrow of papal regimes
Emergence of the capitalist class

IMPERIALISM AND TERRITORIAL DIVISION OF THE WORLD (COLONIZATION OF AFRICA)

IMPERIALISM

Imperialism is the expansion beyond one’s borders, either by conquest, influence, or both. It involves searching for markets and raw materials.

TYPES OF CAPITALISM

Commercial capitalism (1500 – 1750) or mercantilism
Competitive/industrial capitalism (1750 – 1875)
Monopoly/finance capitalism (1875 – present)

COMMERCIAL CAPITALISM / MERCHANT CAPITALISM

During this stage, Europeans closed their borders in search of precious metals such as gold and silver. They were interested in plundering and raiding rather than social and economic transformation.

Although characterized by primitive accumulation of capital, it stimulated the industrial revolution in Europe.

COMPETITIVE / INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM

This stage was characterized by many small manufacturing industries competing to maximize profit. Objectives included acquiring markets for European goods and procuring raw materials.

Features of competitive industrial capitalism

Minimal role of the state due to belief in free trade (laissez-faire)
Small competitive enterprises with no monopoly
Protective tariff policies to protect home industries
Banks acted as agents of payment, not controlling production
Raw materials were important but not crucial

Effects of competitive capitalism in Africa

Abolition of slave trade
Introduction of legitimate trade
Division of Africa among European trading companies
Fall and rise of some African states
Influx of foreigners (explorers, missionaries, traders)

MONOPOLY CAPITALISM

Characterized by predominance of monopolies formed to reduce competition.

Subdivisions

1830 – 1947: Colonization by individual countries
1947 – present: Colonization by multiple countries

Characteristics of Monopoly Capitalism

Concentration and centralization of capital
Merging of bank capital and industrial capital to form finance capital
Export of capital instead of commodities
Completion of division of the world among imperialist powers

THE RISE OF GERMANY, ITALY AND ITS IMPACT

Nationalism is the desire to be free from foreign rule or occupation. European nationalism aimed at uniting nations and liberating them from foreign control, leading to German and Italian unification.

Since 1700, nationalism became important in international relations, linked with monopoly capitalism demands for market protection and unification.

Factors that contributed to the rise of European nationalism

Development of monopoly capitalism
Dislike of foreign rule
Education
Improved communication

THE ITALIAN UNIFICATION (1820 – 1870)

Italy was subjected to foreign domination, including Napoleonic and Austrian control. Nationalist movements included the Carbonari (1820) and Young Italy (1831) led by Giuseppe Mazzini. The liberation of Rome completed unification, led by Count Camillo Cavour.

Obstacles in Italian unification before 1850

Position of the pope and influence of the Catholic Church
Military superiority of Austria
Metternich system dividing Italy into small states
Economic backwardness
Lack of clear and able leadership
Lack of mass mobilization

THE GERMAN UNIFICATION (1820 – 1871)

German states were under Napoleonic and Austrian control. Nationalism grew between 1815 and 1848 but faced obstacles:

Disunity at the Frankfurt parliament
Austrian military might
Lack of sound economy
Lack of able leadership
Foreign intervention by Russia

German unification was attained in 1871 with the proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles.

IMPACTS/EFFECTS OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Emergence of new states (Greece, Belgium, Italy, Germany)
Intensification of national rivalries and antagonism
Emergence of hostile military alliances (Triple Alliance and Triple Entente)
Disturbance of balance of power in Europe
Outbreak of World War I and II
Rise of new imperialism from 1850s

EFFECTS OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM IN AFRICA

Influx of colonial agents (explorers, missionaries, traders)
Scramble for Africa
Partition of Africa
Colonization of Africa
Establishment of colonial states
Establishment of colonial economy
Destruction of African culture
Outbreak of World Wars affecting Africa

MANIFESTATIONS OF EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN THE 19^TH CENTURY

A. MILITARY ALLIANCES

The defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1871 shifted the balance of power. Bismarck formed alliances to isolate France:

The Dual Alliance (1879): Germany and Austria-Hungary defensive alliance.
The Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
The Dual Alliance (1892): France and Russia defensive agreement.
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902): Britain and Japan alliance to protect economic interests.
The Triple Entente (1907): Britain, Russia, and France alliance.

European powers adopted the notion of balance of power to maintain stability.

Causes of militarism and arms race in 19^th century Europe

Need to maintain balance of power
Cold War between USA and USSR
Desire for influence and control in third world countries
Arms race to intimidate other countries

Impacts of the arms race

Loss of lives due to nuclear and chemical weapons
Reduced resources for social and economic welfare
Sharpened hostility between Western and Eastern blocs
Emergence of terrorism

B. THE NOTION OF EUROPEAN BALANCE OF POWER

This policy used military alliances to maintain stability in Europe.

Factors leading to this policy

Rise of European nationalism
Development of monopoly capitalism
Emergence of Germany and Italy

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA

Colonialism refers to domination or control of one country by another economically, politically, and socially.

Reasons for the colonization of Africa

The development of capitalism and industrialization in Europe created demands for markets, raw materials, cheap labor, investment areas, and places to resettle surplus labor force, leading to imperialism.

AGENTS OF IMPERIALISM

Before colonialism, capitalist nations sent agents such as explorers, missionaries, and traders to pave the way for colonial rule.

How explorers, missionaries, and traders paved the way for colonial rule in Africa

Reported wealth in Africa, exciting European interest.
Encouraged African chiefs to sign treaties justifying colonial claims.
Missionaries influenced Africans to accept Christianity and colonial rule.
Chartered companies established infrastructure facilitating colonial administration.
Appealed to European governments to occupy parts of Africa.

SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA

The scramble refers to European powers’ struggle to acquire African colonies. Partition refers to dividing Africa into territories and fixing colonial boundaries.

Main powers involved: Britain, Germany, France, Belgium.

Theories explaining the scramble and partition of Africa

A. AFRO-CENTRIC THEORY (Marxist theory)

Economic factors caused the scramble:

Need for monopoly markets due to overproduction and economic depression.
Need for tropical raw materials for industrial development.
Need for cheap labor due to labor disputes in Europe.
Need for investment areas due to excess capital.
Need to resettle surplus labor force due to industrialization.

B. EUROPEAN THEORY

Political and social factors caused the scramble:

Defeat of France in Franco-Prussian War and emergence of Germany changed balance of power.
Rise of European nationalism.
Social factors such as stopping slave trade and introducing Western civilization.
Strategic factors like control of Uganda, Kenya, and Egypt.

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884 – 1885)

Conference convened by Otto von Bismarck to regulate the scramble and partition of Africa peacefully.

Principles of the Berlin Conference

Principle of effective occupation
Notification principle to inform other powers of colonial claims
Free navigation on the Niger and Congo basins
Abolition of slave trade and introduction of legitimate trade

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN AFRICA

Colonial rule was established using various techniques:

Treaty signing with local leaders
Use of force against resistant societies
Alliances with some societies against others
Gunboat diplomacy to force submission
Use of mercenaries to fight other Africans

AFRICAN REACTION TOWARDS COLONIAL RULE

Reactions varied and included:

Active resistance using arms and violence
Passive resistance by refusal to cooperate
Adaptation techniques by ruling classes seeking alliances

THE DEFEAT OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES

Factors contributing to defeat:

Military weakness
Lack of national consciousness and unity
Natural hazards such as diseases
Influence of missionaries
Succession disputes
Lack of good fighting techniques

TRANSITION FROM COMPETITIVE CAPITALISM TO MONOPOLY CAPITALISM

Competitive capitalism involved many small competing enterprises. Monopoly capitalism emerged as big companies swallowed smaller ones, exported capital, and divided the world among imperialist nations.