HISTORY O LEVEL(FORM FOUR) NOTES – PROMOTION OF AFRICAN UNITY/ AFFAIR

PROMOTION OF AFRICAN UNITY/AFFAIR

INTRODUCTION

After African countries experienced similar social, political, economic, and cultural problems post-independence, African states, through leaders such as the late J.K. Nyerere, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, and Jomo Kenyatta, desired to promote African unity both politically and economically to solve developmental challenges. This element of Pan-Africanism had its roots during the struggle against colonial rule.

To emphasize Pan-Africanism and promote African unity, African heads of state called different meetings, for example:

• In April 1958 and December 1958 in Accra, Ghana, attended by 28 African states.
• Through the Accra Pan-Africanism meeting of 1958, African countries gained one voice, courage, and nationalist spirit against colonial rule, oppression, and desire for union.
• The meeting also led to the formation of the Pan-African Freedom Movement of East and Central Africa (PAFMECA) in September 1958. The East, Central, and South Africa movement led to solidarity and union against their common enemy.

CONTRIBUTION OF PAN–AFRICANISM IN PROMOTING AFRICAN UNITY

1. Pan–Africanism fought for African rights and freedom.
2. It fought against colonial exploitation and oppression.
3. Pan–Africanism built the spirit of unity and solidarity among Africans.
4. Pan–Africanism built patriotic spirit among Africans.
5. Pan–Africanism enabled African leaders to meet and discuss their issues together, e.g., J.K. Nyerere and Nkrumah.
6. Pan–Africanism led to the independence of some African countries by providing moral and material support.
7. Pan–Africanism gave courage and desire for independence.
8. Pan-African unity led to the formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) on 25^th May 1963.

TYPES OF GOVERNMENT FORMED BY POST-INDEPENDENT AFRICAN COUNTRIES

Example: British colonial government type based on multiparty and parliamentary democracy and presidential system.

1. Military government
2. Single (one) party government

WHY POST-INDEPENDENT AFRICAN COUNTRIES CHANGED POLITICAL IDEOLOGY AFTER INDEPENDENCE?

1. Effect/legacy of colonial government: The colonial government policies, laws, and systems inherited by post-independent African states were poor and not suitable for Africans, hence they changed them.
2. Bad constitution: The constitution inherited from colonial rule did not suit or favor Africans.
3. Economic difficulties: Colonial governments left African economies poor and underdeveloped; African countries changed their political ideology to speed up development, e.g., Ujamaa, African socialism.
4. Tribalism (ethnicity): Colonial governments created tribal differences to divide Africans and rule them; African countries changed ideology to bring national unity, e.g., through single-party systems.

MILITARY GOVERNMENT

Military government is a type of government that comes into power through military force or overthrow of civilian government. The process of military government coming into power in French is known as coup d’état.

Coups d’état in many African countries occurred as a result of failure of post-independent African leaders to meet the demands and expectations of their citizens after independence, such as improving social services.

In the 1970s, many African countries experienced coups d’état, including many Francophone (French-speaking) countries except Guinea, Senegal, and Ivory Coast (Côte d’Ivoire), while Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Ghana, Egypt, etc., experienced many coups d’état from 1966 to the 1970s.

REASONS WHY POST-INDEPENDENT AFRICAN STATES FACED MANY MILITARY COUPS SOON AFTER INDEPENDENCE

1. Poor leadership: Unaccountable and irresponsible leaders were among the main reasons for many coups d’état, e.g., Mobutu Sese Seko of DRC Congo.
2. Fraud and corruption: Presence of fraud and competition to embezzle government and public funds led to coups d’état.
3. Tribalism
4. Unequal sharing/distribution of national wealth and socio-economic opportunities: Uneven development caused harsh conditions leading to coups.
5. Regional conflicts: These broke national unity, e.g., Nigeria.
6. Violation of human rights
7. Political instabilities
8. Civil wars
9. External capitalist pressure/force: Many coups d’état resulted from capitalist forces aiming to continue exploiting African resources by creating political instabilities and puppet governments.

MONO-PARTY STATES

Mono (one) party system of government was a political attempt adopted by many post-independent states during the 1970s and 1980s. Half of the African countries that adopted multiparty systems failed to maintain them; only Botswana and Mauritius maintained multiparty systems.

Therefore, in the 1960s and 1970s, many African countries developed single-party systems, where one political party exists and controls the government (state). All leaders in a single-party system, including the president, cabinet, and members of parliament (MPs), belong to the same political party.

REASONS FOR ADOPTION OF SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM

Adoption of single-party systems was championed by African political leaders such as J.K. Nyerere (Tanzania), Kenneth Kaunda (Zambia), and Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) due to the following reasons:

1. To build national unity: Multiparty systems inherited from colonialists destroyed national unity; banning political parties after independence was a solution to rebuild unity.
2. To maintain African traditional political systems: One-party systems resembled African traditional governance by one king or chief and advisors without opposition.
3. One party was direct democracy: Single-party systems were closer to the people than multiparty systems under colonial rule.
4. To maintain political stability: Single-party systems can maintain peace, harmony, and political stability better than multiparty systems.
5. To bring development to the people.
6. To avoid penetration of puppet leaders.

WEAKNESSES OF THE ONE PARTY SYSTEM IN AFRICAN STATES AFTER INDEPENDENCE

1. Subpopulation/few government leaders.
2. Abuse of power: Single-party systems led to abuse of power by some leaders becoming dictators.
3. Absence of challenges: Lack of opposition made the ruling party irresponsible and inactive towards people’s development.
4. Absence of rule of law: The ruling party became above the law, controlling government, soldiers, and parliament.
5. Absence of democracy and people’s rights.

WHY SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM DECLINED / COLLAPSED IN MOST AFRICAN COUNTRIES IN 1990’S?

Single-party system decline in most African countries started in the early 1990s. For example, in Tanzania, multiparty system was introduced in July 1992, and the first multiparty political election was held in 1995.

Multiparty system

• Multiparty system is the situation where there is more than one political party within the same country. The single-party system in Africa declined and gave way to multiparty systems due to the following reasons:

1. Single-party system was against people’s democracy and rights; it did not allow people to exercise their rights such as voting, freedom of expression, and association.
2. Economic crisis in the 1970s and 1980s: Many Africans experienced economic hardships such as currency devaluation and poor incomes, associated with authoritarian rule and poor policies of single-party systems.
3. The decline of the Soviet Union (USSR): USSR was a supporter of single-party systems by supplying military, technical, and financial aid. Its decline led to the decline of single-party systems due to lack of support.
4. Pressure from the USA and other Western countries: They opposed single-party systems and pressured African countries to change political systems to receive aid and grants.
5. Pressure from the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF): African countries were forced to adopt multiparty systems as a condition for loans.
6. Multiparty systems avoid abuse of power and dictatorship.
7. Multiparty systems make governments more accountable and responsible to citizens.
8. Multiparty systems speed up development by encouraging political, economic, and social challenges to the ruling party.

WEAKNESSES OF MULTIPARTY SYSTEM

1. Multiparty system led to distortion of national unity due to political divisions.
2. Civil wars: Multiparty systems can cause conflicts and civil wars.
3. Multiparty systems can create puppet leaders influenced by capitalist countries.
4. Multiparty systems can disturb peace and harmony due to militant political activities.

CHANGES IN ECONOMIC AND DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN POST-INDEPENDENT AFRICAN COUNTRIES

Despite attaining political independence, most African countries remained economically dependent as it took time to achieve economic independence. This was caused by colonial legacy, which did not develop economies suitable for African needs. Most development was concentrated abroad, and foreign investors controlled manufacturing and mining companies, sending profits overseas.

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES INHERITED FROM COLONIAL LEGACY

1. Poor economic base: Most African countries had poor and oppressive economic policies such as imposition of taxes and agricultural marketing boards, which burdened poor people.
2. Poverty: Many people were poor and suffered from diseases.
3. Poor industrial base: Industrialization was discouraged during colonialism to avoid competition with European goods.
4. Poor education: Africans were unskilled and ignorant due to inadequate colonial education.

STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES (SAPs)

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) were development policies introduced by European capitalist nations in the 1980s to solve social, political, and economic challenges faced by African countries.

Challenges in Africa that led to the introduction of SAPs in the 1980s

1. Poverty: Many African economies and people were poor.
2. Poor science and technology: African countries were technologically backward.
3. Poor industrial base: Low application of machinery in production; dependence on agriculture.
4. Low value of currencies: Due to poor crop prices and exports.
5. Poor infrastructure: Lack of good roads, railways, ports, and harbors.
6. Poor market for agricultural products due to world market frustrations.
7. Poor provision of social services: Many suffered from diseases, poor education, food shortages, and lack of access to services.
8. International debts: Many countries had debt crises from loans they could not repay.
9. Political instabilities and wars: Civil wars and conflicts such as the Arab-Israel war of 1973 led to crises like the oil crisis affecting African economies.

To solve these challenges, European capitalist nations introduced SAPs as conditions for loans and grants from the World Bank (WB) and International Monetary Fund (IMF).

SAPs operated through two world capitalist financial institutions:

• World Bank (WB)
• International Monetary Fund (IMF)

SAPs operated under the policy of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) in the 1990s. African countries had to accept and follow SAPs conditions to achieve development.

CONDITIONS OF SAPs TO GET ASSISTANCE FROM WB AND IMF

1. Devaluation of currencies.
2. Cost sharing.
3. Reduction of government expenditure.
4. Privatization.
5. Free markets.
6. Removing price controls and encouraging foreign investments.
7. Good governance and fighting against corruption.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF SAPs

1. SAPs threaten national sovereignty.
2. SAPs open doors to exploitation through foreign investment and privatization, exploiting African resources despite independence.
3. SAPs led to neo-colonialism, where African countries are controlled while independent.
4. SAPs created dependency economies due to loans and grants from WB and IMF.
5. SAPs created debt burdens/crises in Africa.
6. SAPs caused social hardships due to cost-sharing in services like education, health, and water supply.
7. SAPs led to decline in agricultural development, causing low production, food shortages, and hunger.
8. SAPs increased poverty at national and individual levels, benefiting mainly capitalist nations.
9. Devaluation of currency due to difficult loan conditions and debt crises.
10. Inequality.
11. Political instability due to SAPs policies and debt burdens.
12. Environmental degradation.

AFRICA INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL INTEGRATION

Africa continued to solve social, political, and economic problems through two types of integration:

• Regional cooperation including OAU, EAC, SADC, and ECOWAS.
• International cooperation, e.g., UNO, UN, NAM, Commonwealth, etc.

ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU) OR AFRICAN UNITY

INTRODUCTION

The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was formed by independent African countries to solve social, political, and economic problems on 25^th May 1963. OAU changed its name to African Union (AU) on 9^th July 2002.

OBJECTIVES OF OAU OR AU

1. To promote African unity among African countries.
2. To achieve better life for Africans.
3. To remove/eradicate all forms of neo-colonialism and segregation.
4. To promote international integration.
5. To defend African sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence.
6. To improve political education and health among member states.

UNICEF: United Nations International Children’s Fund.

WHO: World Health Organization.

ILO: International Labour Organization.

UNHCR: United Nations High Commission for Refugees.

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

FAO/WFP: World Food Program.

ACHIEVEMENTS/MERITS OF AU

1. It builds unity and solidarity among African countries.
2. AU formed its bank known as African Development Bank (ADB).
3. To investigate and prevent situations that might lead to international friction.
4. To recommend methods of dispute adjustment or settlement.
5. The principle of inviolability of inherited boundaries.
6. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each state.
7. Eradication of all forms of colonialism.
8. AU gives African voice and power in international affairs.
9. AU facilitates annual meetings of African countries.

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS WHICH AFRICANS HAVE HAD SINCE INDEPENDENCE

• Low value of currency.
• Poverty: Many African countries have many natural resources but remain poor.
• Poor application of science and technology.
• Poor market for raw materials and crops.

OBSTACLES/CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS OF OAU/AU

1. Political instabilities among African countries.
2. Civil wars leading to absence of peace and security.
3. Poverty among African countries.
4. Neo-colonialism affected by pressure from superpowers.
5. Poor infrastructures.
6. Lack of funds due to poverty among members.
7. Different ideologies among members.
8. Poor leadership and presence of dictators, e.g., Idi Amin of Uganda.
9. Differences in levels of development among African countries.

AFRICA IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

CONTINENTAL COOPERATION

African countries worked together to solve political, social, and economic problems after independence. The origin of continental cooperation in Africa can be traced back to the Pan-African movement, which refers to the unity of all people of African origin or descent. The word “pan” means ‘together’ or ‘all’, and Africans refers to people, implying unity of all people of black color.

OBJECTIVES OF ESTABLISHMENT OF CONTINENTAL COOPERATION

Some of the objectives of establishing continental cooperation in Africa include:

1. To preserve political independence and freedom.
2. To fight against economic exploitation such as land alienation, poor wages, and forced labor.
3. To unite all people of African origin in the struggle against political oppression.
4. To challenge the ideology of European supremacy which undermines African political independence, economic stability, and cultural civilization.
5. To protect African dignity.
6. To preserve African culture from destruction.

African cooperation existed through the formation of various organizations as shown below:

The rise of African Unity (O.A.U)

O.A.U was an organization of independent African states formed by 30 countries in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia on 25/05/1963. Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia was the first chairman of the organization.

Background of O.A.U

Before its formation, African countries attempted to unite Africa to fight against problems facing their people. These efforts included:

1. The creation of PAFMECA (Pan African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa) in the late 1950s.
2. The formation of the Brazzaville group in 1961 by Congo, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Ivory Coast, Niger, Senegal, Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Chad, Gabon, and Upper Volta.
3. The charter of union of African States signed by Guinea and Ghana on 23-11-1958 to bring cooperation between them.
4. Formation of military command and African common market at Casablanca, Morocco by heads of states such as Algeria, Ghana, Mali, and Morocco.

By 1963, African countries realized the need to create a Pan-African organization to bring more strength, unity, and development among all countries, hence the formation of O.A.U.

Problems

1. Civil wars in member states such as Sudan, Somalia, and Sierra Leone killed many people in the 1990s.
2. Assassination of heads of states in many countries, e.g., Melchior Ndadaye of Burundi in 1993.
3. O.A.U could not impose decisions on its members; member states acted against O.A.U interests.
4. Absence of good infrastructure such as railways and roads hindered movement of people between and within member states.
5. Shortage of money; member states could not contribute funds on time for different programs.
6. Interference by external powers in African affairs, e.g., USA, Britain, France.
7. Ideological differences, especially during the Cold War, e.g., Tanzania-socialism, Kenya-capitalism.

THE OBJECTIVES OF O.A.U

The objectives refer to the goals which member states planned to achieve by working under the organization. They include:

• To enhance unity among African states.
• To eliminate all forms of colonialism in Africa.
• To promote international cooperation in line with the UN and Universal Declaration.
• To coordinate cooperation and efforts to bring better life for African people.
• To defend territorial integrity and independence of African states.

Principles of O.A.U

These were guidelines to be followed by member states to achieve their goals and objectives:

• Non-interference in domestic matters of member states.
• Use peaceful ways to resolve conflicts and disputes between member states.
• Accept the movement of Non-Alignment of Afro-Asian states.
• Respect the rights of states to exist as independent countries.
• Sovereign equality of all member states must be respected.
• Condemn political assassinations and encourage opposition to domestic dictatorship governments.

Benefits of O.A.U to Tanzania

1. Tanzania gained fame by hosting the headquarters of the liberation committee in countries such as Zimbabwe and Angola.
2. Through African Development Bank, Tanzania received funds for improvement of sectors like agriculture and education.
3. Tanzania made friendships with other O.A.U member countries through participation in various meetings.
4. Tanzania had opportunities to express opinions on many problems through various meetings.

Failure of O.A.U

Despite its successes, O.A.U had failures including:

• Failure to bring better standards of living among Africans.
• Failure to eradicate neo-colonial exploitation practiced by Western European countries.
• Failure to solve political conflicts leading to civil wars and overthrow of elected governments, e.g., Ghana in 1966.
• Failure to prevent inter-state conflicts, e.g., Tanzania and Uganda in 1978, Kenya and Somalia in 1990s.

Despite failures, O.A.U existed for almost 37 years. In the late 1990s, Mr. Muammar Gaddafi, Libyan head of state, proposed creating a new organization to address unresolved problems. This led to the formation of the African Union (AU).

The Formation of African Union (A.U)

The AU is an organization of African countries, established by the declaration of the heads of states and governments of the O.A.U during the O.A.U summit at Sirte, Libya in 1999. The constitutive Act was adopted at the Lomé summit in 2000, and the AU was officially launched in Durban, South Africa, in 2002.

Objectives of the AU

• To achieve greater unity and solidarity between African countries and peoples.
• To accelerate political and socio-economic integration among Africans.
• To promote and defend African common interests.
• To promote peace, security, and stability in Africa.
• To defend sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence of member states.
• To encourage international cooperation.
• To enable Africa to play its rightful role in the global economy through international negotiations.
• To work with relevant international parties to eliminate preventable diseases and promote health.
• To promote sustainable development at economic, social, and cultural levels and integration of economies.
• To promote democratic principles, popular participation, and good governance.

Problems which threaten future success of AU

• Civil wars in countries such as Sierra Leone, Sudan, Northern Uganda, and Ivory Coast.
• Poor infrastructure such as railways, roads, and waterways.
• Lack of funds; most members are poor nations.
• Epidemic diseases such as HIV/AIDS killing skilled labor.
• Corruption and mismanagement of public funds.

The benefits of AU to Tanzania

1. Tanzania gained opportunities to unite with other African countries to solve political conflicts peacefully and discuss relations with Europe and the USA.
2. Tanzania made friendships with other African countries through joint activities and programs in social and economic sectors.
3. Tanzania gained territorial dignity through participation in military operations.
4. Tanzania received new ideas and information to solve problems in sectors such as agriculture, health, mining, and industry.
5. Tanzania received loans and grants from financial institutions such as the African Central Bank and African Investment Bank.

AFRICAN REGIONAL COOPERATION

The need for regional cooperation in Africa arose to tackle political, social, and economic needs of the people. This approach is beneficial as people in one region are likely to work closely due to geographical, historical, and cultural advantages. Regional groupings include the East African Community (EAC), COMESA, ECOWAS, and SADC.

The East African Community (EAC)

The East African cooperation after independence led to the formation of the East African Community (EAC) by Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. It was formed on 6^th June 1967 after a treaty signed in Kampala by the three heads of states to foster social and economic development in the region.

Arusha became the headquarters of the community in Tanzania.

The origin of EAC

It can be traced back to 1920 when the British held the East African Governors Conference to discuss matters of common interest in the colonies under British rule. On 1^st January 1948, the British formed the East African Governors High Commission with functions including:

1. Making rules on inter-territorial common services and good government policies.
2. Administering common services such as civil aviation, East Africa posts, telegraphs, and meteorological departments.

Objectives of EAC

Objectives of EAC include:

1. To facilitate free movement of people and understanding among East Africans.
2. To provide a wider market for goods produced in the region.
3. To promote free trade of goods and services among member states.
4. To provide common services such as East Africa Railways and East Africa Airways based in Nairobi, harbors headquartered in Dar es Salaam, and African community in Arusha; Uganda became headquarters of posts and telecommunications and East African Development Bank.
5. To manage the East African Examination Council.
6. To conduct research in areas such as agriculture and population.

Achievements of EAC

1. Provision of funds to member states through the East African Bank, enabling Tanzania to produce aluminum sheets, assemble radios, and manufacture motor vehicle tires and tubes.
2. Uganda manufactured bicycles and nitrogenous fertilizers.
3. Kenya produced electric bulbs from capital provided by the bank.
4. East African countries cooperated in posts, telecommunication, and railways.
5. Provided a forum for political leaders to discuss economic and political issues.
6. Facilitated free movement of people, e.g., Kenyans and Ugandans could move easily to Tanzania.

The collapse of EAC

The East African Community existed for ten years and collapsed in 1977. It was revived in 2000. Reasons for collapse include:

• Differences in ideologies: Tanzania used socialism and self-reliance, while Kenya and Uganda used capitalism.
• Higher economic growth in Kenya compared to Tanzania and Uganda, causing fears of exploitation.
• Absence of common currency, making trade difficult.
• Misunderstanding between leaders, e.g., Julius K. Nyerere and Idi Amin of Uganda.
• Shortage of funds among East African governments.

The new EAC was implemented on 7^th July 2000.

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE NEW EAC

The principles are guidelines for community members to realize their goals:

1. Mutual trust between the people of EAC states.
2. Peaceful coexistence and good neighborliness.
3. Peaceful settlement of disputes.
4. Good governance, acceptance of democracy, rule of law, and respect for social justice.
5. Cooperation for equal mutual benefit among member states.

The goals/objectives of the new EAC

The objectives include:

• Establishment of a monetary union.
• Establishment of a common market including services and information technology.
• Formation of the East African Federation.
• Promotion of peace, security, stability, and good neighborliness.
• Development of policies and programs for cooperation in politics, economy, social defense, and judicial matters.
• Promotion of sustainable and balanced growth and development.
• Promotion of the role of women in socio-economic development.
• Achieving equitable economic development and higher living standards.

Areas of cooperation among EAC members

Members intend to cooperate in the following areas:

• Trade liberalization and development: Customs union signed in 2004; plans for a common market for free movement of labor, goods, services, and capital.
• Infrastructure and services: Collective policies on roads, railways, maritime, air, and telecommunication.
• Monetary and financial cooperation.
• Investment and industrial development.
• Development of human resources, science, and technology including education, training, and research.
• Agriculture and food security: Cooperation in seed development, livestock breeding, disease control, irrigation, and water management.
• Free movement of persons, labor, services, right of establishment, and residence.
• Health, social, and cultural activities: Promotion of sports, cultural, and social welfare programs.
• Tourism and wildlife management.
• Standardization, quality assurance, and testing of goods and services.
• Advancement of the role of women in socio-economic development.
• Relations with other regional and international organizations and development partners.
• Political matters: Common foreign, security, and defense policies; strengthening democracy and regional peace.
• Legal and justice affairs: Harmonization of legal training, certification, and court judgments.

Achievements of the EAC

1. Admitted Rwanda and Burundi, increasing the market scope.
2. Facilitated improvement of transport and communications among member states.
3. Opened the way for free movement of people and goods, creating wealth and job opportunities.
4. Introduced a common market allowing tariff-free trade among member states.
5. Provided a forum for leaders to discuss regional problems.
6. Enabled civil society, farmers, and other groups to interact and exchange ideas freely.
7. Opened common ventures in education, science, and research, e.g., Inter-University Council for East Africa (IUCEA).

Challenges of EAC

1. Conflicts among member states, e.g., insecurity in northern Uganda.
2. Fears that stronger economies like Kenya may benefit more.
3. Bilateral issues complicating work, e.g., Kenya-Uganda dispute over Migingo Island.
4. Cattle rustling among border communities.
5. Membership in multiple regional organizations causing conflicts, e.g., Tanzania in SADC, Uganda and Kenya in COMESA.

THE COMMON MARKET FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA (COMESA)

COMESA was created by a treaty signed in Kampala, Uganda on 6^th November 1993. It replaced the Preferential Trade Area (P.T.A) formed by Eastern and Southern African states in 1982.

Objectives of COMESA

• To make trade easier within the region by reducing and eventually eliminating tariffs among members.
• Support cooperation in monetary and financial affairs to facilitate sub-regional integration.
• Promote cooperation in trade, industry, agriculture, transport, and communication.
• Create joint industrial and agricultural institutions to increase production.
• Harmonize and coordinate development strategies, policies, and plans.
• Build a strong economic base as a step toward economic independence.

Reasons for Tanzania’s withdrawal from COMESA

• Financial contributions to various economic organizations became a burden.
• Avoiding duplication of regional cooperations.
• Discouraged by political conflicts in Zimbabwe and civil wars in Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia.
• Wanted to focus efforts on organizations like the East African Community.
• Wanted to protect its industrial development from other COMESA members.

Problems facing COMESA

• Civil war in Somalia since the 1990s.
• Multiple memberships: e.g., Uganda is a member of COMESA, EAC, and IGAD.
• Heavy dependence on donor countries.
• Different currencies among members complicate transactions.
• Poor infrastructure in Sudan, Ethiopia, and other states.
• Bad governance in Zimbabwe resulting in dictatorship, inflation, and economic decline.
• Misunderstandings over rules of origin, e.g., Egyptian comments to Kenya in 2003.
• Boundary quarrels, e.g., Ethiopia and Eritrea since the 1990s.

ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)

ECOWAS was formed by English, French, and Portuguese-speaking West African countries under the Treaty of Lomé on 28^th May 1975 to promote unity for economic development in industries, transport, telecommunication, energy, agriculture, monetary, and commerce.

Its aim

• To eliminate barriers to free movement of people, services, and capital.
• To remove customs duties among member states to create a free trade area.
• To coordinate industrial and agricultural development policies.

Organs of ECOWAS

• Authority of the heads of states: makes major decisions and policies.
• The Council of Ministers: assists authority in policy recommendations.
• The Community Parliament.
• The Economic and Social Council.
• Community Court of Justice.
• Executive Secretary and ECOWAS Fund: headquartered in Lagos, with fund control in Togo.
• ECOWAS Bank of Investment and Development (EBID).
• Specialized agencies like WAHO (West Africa Health Organization) and WAWA (West Africa Women Association).

Its members

ECOWAS has about 16 members including Burkina Faso, Benin, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Cape Verde, Nigeria, Guinea, Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Togo, Mali, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Niger, and Cameroon.

Achievements of ECOWAS

1. It brought unity among West African states by creating conditions for joint projects such as food and transport cooperation between Nigeria and Niger after 1975.
2. ECOWAS formed a military force known as ECOMOG, which helped defeat military regimes that overthrew civilian governments, e.g., in Sierra Leone in the 1990s.
3. It set up a fund in 1986 with loans from Western financial institutions to improve agriculture, industries, transport, and telecommunication.
4. It facilitated movement of people between member states since 1979 by eliminating obstacles.
5. It provided a wider market for member states’ commodities.

Challenges encountered by ECOWAS member states

1. Political instability, e.g., Nigeria’s coups and civil wars in Sierra Leone.
2. Low prices on exported products causing poor foreign currency earnings.
3. Language barriers due to Anglophone and Francophone countries.
4. Poor infrastructure such as roads.
5. Bilateral and triple cooperation before ECOWAS complicates objectives.
6. Failure of some members to remit contributions on time.
7. Smaller economies overwhelmed by major economies like Nigeria.
8. Ideological differences between capitalist and socialist countries.
9. Border quarrels, e.g., Nigeria and Cameroon over Bakazi region.
10. Foreign interference, e.g., French troops in Côte d’Ivoire.
11. Vast geographic region complicates coordination.

The Southern Africa Development Community (SADC)

The origin of SADC can be traced back to 1979 but was formally established in April 1980, with headquarters in Gaborone, Botswana. Initially known as the Southern Africa Development Coordination Conference (SADCC).

Currently, SADC has 15 members including Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mozambique, Tanzania, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, Mauritius, Swaziland, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Objectives of the SADC

1. To harness resources in the region for the benefit of all member states.
2. To promote economic growth and standards of living.
3. To promote environmental protection and resource utilization.
4. To promote peace and security among member states.
5. To promote sustainable development through cooperation.
6. To consolidate social, cultural, and historical ties.
7. To enhance economic development by promoting transport and communications.

Achievements of the SADC

1. Enhancement of security, e.g., establishment of ECOMOG in West Africa.
2. Promotion of democracy and rule of law.
3. Development of infrastructure such as roads, harbors, and railways.
4. Promotion of agriculture through treaties signed in 1995.
5. Consultation on regional matters using SADC as a forum.
6. Sharing of water resources in the region.

Challenges experienced by SADC member states

1. Production of competing rather than complementary goods.
2. Political instability, e.g., Democratic Republic of Congo.
3. Language barriers.
4. Differences in political ideology.
5. Poor coordination and communication.
6. Divided loyalties due to membership in other regional organizations.
7. Dominance of South Africa due to strong economy causing anxiety.

AFRICA IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

Most African states gained political independence in the 1960s, after global organizations like the United Nations had been established. Nevertheless, Africa played an important role in global affairs.

Types of international organizations

1. International Governmental Organizations (IGOs): Made up of two or more sovereign states, e.g., United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and World Health Organization.
2. International Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs): Made up of individuals or private groups, e.g., International Red Cross, Amnesty International, Transparency International.

Objectives of participating in international affairs

• To show solidarity with other states during emergencies.
• To provide a forum to discuss continental affairs.
• Increased participation in the United Nations General Assembly to gain international attention.
• To demonstrate sovereignty through global participation.
• To enhance Africa’s development, e.g., participation in the Commonwealth of Nations.
• To coordinate cooperation among francophone countries and former colonial masters.
• To participate in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) to maintain strategic neutrality during the Cold War.

Africa and the UN

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization comprising independent states worldwide. It was formed after World War II to:

1. Develop friendly relations among states.
2. Maintain international peace and security.
3. Promote respect for human rights and freedom.
4. Promote human welfare by uplifting living standards.
5. Promote international understanding among nations.

Structure/organs of the UN

The UN headquarters is in New York, USA, and consists of:

• The General Assembly: The supreme organ, meets annually, comprising all member states.
• The Security Council: Comprises 15 members, 5 permanent (China, Russia, France, UK, USA) with veto power, and 10 non-permanent members appointed for two-year terms.
• The International Court of Justice: Based in The Hague, Netherlands, with 15 judges serving 9-year terms, handling diplomatic, territorial, and other international disputes.
• The Secretariat: Located in New York, led by the Secretary-General, responsible for day-to-day work.
• The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): Made up of 54 members elected for three years, coordinating economic and social issues through commissions.
• The Trusteeship Council: Supervises territories under colonial rule, promoting economic, social, and political development.

Functions of the General Assembly

• Admit new members.
• Consider matters affecting international peace and security.
• Approve the UN budget.
• Elect non-permanent Security Council members, judges of the International Court of Justice, and appoint the Secretary-General.

Functions of the Security Council

1. Enforce international peace and security, including sanctions.
2. Investigate threats to peace.
3. Urge peaceful settlement of disputes.
4. Expel countries violating UN regulations.
5. Recommend dispute settlement procedures.

The International Court of Justice

Based in The Hague, Netherlands, it is the highest judicial organ of the UN. It handles issues involving diplomatic staff, fishing rights, nuclear tests, international borders, and territorial waters. For example, in 2004, it arbitrated the boundary dispute between Nigeria and Cameroon over the Bakassi peninsula.

The Secretariat

Located in New York, USA, consisting of international civil servants led by the Secretary-General, responsible for the day-to-day work of the UN.

Duties/functions of the UN Secretary-General

• Administer peacekeeping operations.
• Research trends in human rights.
• Report threats to global peace to the General Assembly.
• Monitor execution of UN recommendations.
• Translate documents.
• Register treaties.

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

Made up of 54 UN member states elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. It coordinates economic and social issues through commissions such as the Statistical Commission, Population Commission, Commission for Social Development, Commission on the Status of Women, and Commission on Narcotic Drugs. It works through agencies including WHO, FAO, UNESCO, and UNICEF.

Africa and The United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

UNICEF deals with welfare activities for children worldwide. African states have worked closely with UNICEF to promote child welfare by:

• Assisting refugees worldwide, e.g., in Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria in 1959.
• Promoting sanitation in rural areas.
• Donating essential drugs to protect young children and mothers.
• Conducting agricultural research to fight malnutrition and hunger.
• Promoting girl-child education.
• Promoting maternal health.
• Sponsoring nutrition and vaccination campaigns against diseases like tuberculosis, polio, measles, yaws, and syphilis.

Africa and United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

UNESCO has provided technical assistance to African countries since independence, opening a regional office in Ghana in 1962. It promotes educational, cultural, and scientific development globally.

Activities promoted by UNESCO include:

1. Assistance towards free and compulsory education.
2. Easing racial, social, and international tensions.
3. Appreciation of cultural values of different peoples.
4. Promotion of scientific research to raise living standards.

Africa and the Red Cross

The International Committee of the Red Cross is an International Non-Governmental Organization that provides assistance to distressed parts of the world. It works closely with the UN and its specialized bodies to assist in humanitarian work.

Assistance provided by the Red Cross includes:

• Provision of shelter in the form of tents for disaster victims, e.g., Tanzanians during floods in 2006.
• Medical supplies and personnel in war zones.
• Mobilization of trained volunteers for emergencies.
• Organizing blood donation campaigns.
• Providing food and water to refugees, e.g., in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, and Sudan.

Africa and the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR)

Most refugees in the world live in Africa. The OAU cooperated with UNHCR since its formation. By 1979, there were 3.5 million refugees in Africa, increasing to 5 million by the 1990s. Support provided by UNHCR includes:

• Research on refugee needs.
• Food and clothing assistance.
• Medical aid.
• Education support.
• Mobilizing funds.
• Protection and settlement assistance through negotiations with governments.

The Trusteeship Council

This organ took over the work of the Mandates Commission created by the League of Nations to supervise territories under colonial rule. It consists of five permanent members and six additional members appointed by the General Assembly. Its work includes promoting economic, social, and political development of territories under its trusteeship. Countries that gained independence under the trusteeship include Libya (1949), Somalia (1960), Cameroon (1960), Ghana (1957), Tanganyika (1961), Rwanda and Burundi (1962), and Western Samoa (1962).

Achievements resulting from Africa’s participation in the UN

1. Disarmament: Spearheading reduction of dangerous arms, especially nuclear weapons, e.g., Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT).
2. Peaceful resolution of conflicts through peacekeepers, observer missions, envoys, and mediators, e.g., in DRC, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Somalia.
3. Promotion of human rights through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
4. Promotion of democracy and good governance.
5. Campaigns for education and cultural interaction regardless of race, language, or geography.
6. Coordination of efforts to fight underdevelopment through bodies like IMF, World Bank, and UNDP.
7. International Court of Justice indicting African leaders for crimes against humanity, e.g., Arusha tribunal for Rwanda genocide.

Challenges encountered by African countries in the UN

• Failure to intervene quickly in crises, e.g., Rwanda genocide.
• Dependence on contributions from poor African member states who sometimes fail to pay.
• Ideological differences during the Cold War affecting African countries.
• Divided loyalties among world nations affecting African participation.
• Perceived unequal treatment, e.g., International Court of Justice focusing on African leaders.
• Denial of second term to former UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali from Egypt.
• Use of veto powers by permanent Security Council members; African countries demand veto power.

African and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

NAM is an organization of less developed countries, emerging in the 1950s after Asian countries attained independence. The Bandung Conference in Indonesia in 1955 marked its birth. Participants included Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt), Sukarno (Indonesia), and Zhou Enlai (China). NAM was established as an alternative to membership in either the Eastern or Western blocs.

Objectives of the NAM

• To eradicate racism worldwide.
• To fight for disarmament.
• To enhance participation of less-developed countries in the UN.
• To safeguard independence and sovereignty of member states.
• To fight against military alliances that endanger global peace.
• To promote neutrality in major power affairs.
• To fight for a new economic world order free from exploitation.
• To fight neo-colonialism by promoting economic independence.
• To fight for decolonization of countries still under colonial oppression.

Achievements of African states in the NAM

• Maintained global peace by avoiding Cold War antagonism.
• Enhanced diplomatic power by speaking with one voice.
• Convinced the world of the need for a new economic order.
• Played a crucial role in global disarmament.
• Provided a forum for Afro-Asian discussions.
• Fought for decolonization using international forums.
• Fought against environmental destruction to protect the ozone layer and prevent global warming.

Problems experienced by Africa in the Non-Aligned Movement

• Personality differences among African member states complicating cooperation.
• Break-up of the former Soviet Union leading some to believe NAM’s role ended.
• Absence of enforcement mechanisms such as military or peacekeeping forces.
• Economic weakness and political instability undermining involvement.
• Dependency on former colonial masters undermining NAM’s power.
• Ideological differences slowing down efficiency despite pledged neutrality.

CHANGES IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC POLICIES IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

Reasons for introduction of ideological, political and administrative changes

1. To seek unity among Africans; many states introduced mono-party systems.
2. To eliminate social problems, especially poverty inherited after independence.
3. To destroy capitalism and promote equal sharing of production.
4. To organize government posts and civil service to provide employment to Africans.
5. To bring true independence by eliminating white workers from colonial rule.
6. To address issues such as land alienation, labor, laws, and taxation.

Political changes

Introduction of new political systems to govern newly independent countries, including:

1. Introduction of single-party system.
2. Military rule/government.

Single party system

This replaced the multiparty system inherited at independence. In Tanganyika, the decision to create a single-party system was reached in TANU NEC of 1963, and in 1965 the constitution was amended, making Tanzania officially a single-party country.

Reasons for the introduction of single party system

1. Unity: Single-party system promotes unity; multiple parties caused division based on religion, region, or ethnicity.
2. Rise of new ideologies: Socialism favored centralization of power in a single party.
3. Elimination of parties allied with colonialism, e.g., UTP in Tanganyika.
4. Similarity to African traditional political systems ruled by one chief or king.
5. Power consolidation by leaders wanting to rule for many years.
6. Promotion of development by concentrating efforts on development rather than politics.
7. Promotion of equitable development as all people belong to the same party.

Weaknesses of the single party system

1. Encouraged authoritarianism due to lack of political competition.
2. Lack of checks and balances, encouraging mismanagement and corruption.
3. Led to abuse of power.
4. Suppressed diversity of opinion, endangering development.

Decline of single party system in Africa

Question: By the early 1990s, why was the single party system in Africa replaced by multiparty systems?

Reasons for the fall of mono-party system

1. Opposition to mono-party system for working against democracy and human rights.
2. Collapse of the USSR in the 1980s, leading to loss of support.
3. Donor countries like USA, Britain, and Germany withdrew support.
4. Economic decline in countries with single-party systems in the 1970s and 1980s.
5. Rise of the USA as the sole superpower.

Military rule/governments

Military government is a form of government where soldiers take control instead of elected civilians. The process of military takeover is called coup d’état, a French term meaning “overthrow of the state.” Several African countries came under military rule within a few years after independence, e.g., Egypt (1952), Sudan (1956), Nigeria (1966), and Uganda (1971).

Reasons for military rule/coup d’état/political instability soon after independence

1. Weak political parties failing to oppose ruling governments, leaving the military as the only opposition.
2. Colonial legacy: Lack of stable political systems left by colonial governments.
3. Corruption and embezzlement by post-independence presidents, prompting military takeovers.
4. Lack of national unity due to diverse tribes combined by colonialists, causing conflicts.
5. Divide and rule policies by colonialists creating divided societies.

Reasons/factors leading Africans to change their social, political, and economic policies

Social problems

1. Tribalism: Many Africans were disunited based on tribal differences.
2. Disease: Africa faced communicable diseases like TB, cholera, malaria, etc.
3. Poverty: Despite rich natural resources, many Africans remained poor.
4. Poor provision of social services: Lack of health centers, education, water, housing due to colonial neglect.
5. Ignorance/poor education: Africans were illiterate due to poor colonial education.

Political problems (challenges)

1. Civil wars: Many African countries experienced civil wars causing unrest, e.g., Congo, Somalia, Sudan, Libya.
2. Political instability: Due to civil wars, tribalism, poor leadership, and political party pressures.
3. Border conflicts: Disputes over boundaries causing misunderstandings, e.g., Tanzania vs Malawi, Sudan vs Southern Sudan.
4. Coup d’état: Military governments came to power by overthrowing ruling governments, e.g., Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Liberia, Ivory Coast.
5. Poor governments: Characterized by corruption, dictatorship, and absence of rule of law, e.g., DRC Congo, Libya, Egypt, Somalia, Sudan.

Economic problems facing African countries after independence

1. Poverty: Many African economies are poor and dependent.
2. Poor industrial base: Technological backwardness and dependence on manufactured goods from developed countries.
3. Poor agricultural development: Agriculture depended on low technology and natural conditions.
4. Food storage problems.
5. Low value of currencies: African currencies had low value compared to dollars or pounds.
6. Poor infrastructures: Roads, railways, airports, and transport remain underdeveloped.

Factors that hindered political unity in Africa

Since independence, nationalistic leaders such as J.K. Nyerere, Kwame Nkrumah, Nnamdi Azikiwe, and Jomo Kenyatta tried to bring political unity, but several factors hindered this:

1. Effects of colonial legacy and capitalist influence dividing Africans to rule them easily.
2. Different political ideologies due to colonial influence, e.g., capitalist Kenya and socialist Tanzania.
3. Different political priorities due to varying challenges faced by countries.
4. Different timings of independence, leading to lack of shared agenda.
5. Poverty causing economic dependence and failure to unite.
6. Political instability due to poor systems and leadership.
7. Civil wars causing lack of peace and harmony.
8. Tribalism causing division based on ethnic differences.
9. Religious conflicts, e.g., Boko Haram in Nigeria, Al-Shabaab in Somalia.
10. Dictatorship and lack of democracy hindering unity.
11. Poor communication and infrastructure limiting interaction.
12. Border conflicts causing disputes among countries.

Measures/Changes and Priorities of Post (Neo) Independence African States

Post-independent African states inherited various social, political, and economic problems from colonial governments. After independence, they focused on solving social problems by setting new priorities and changes suitable for Africans. These changes include:

1. Changing political legacy of colonial rule by emphasizing participatory democracy.
2. Maintaining sovereignty and security to avoid disintegration and maintain peace.
3. Building national unity among diverse peoples divided by colonialism.
4. Fighting tribalism created by colonial favoritism.
5. Fighting regionalism and uneven development within countries.
6. Eradicating poverty by improving agriculture, industry, and economies.
7. Improving people’s and national economies through increased agricultural production.

Changes in Economic Development Policies and Strategies

After independence, many African countries sought to address economic injustices experienced under colonialism by adopting new policies and strategies.

1. Economic exploitation during colonialism was addressed by providing equal job opportunities.
2. Prohibition of some cash crops by Europeans was challenged.
3. Dependence on mineral resources and cash crops for foreign exchange.
4. Economic dependence on former colonial masters, with few exceptions.
5. Reduction of regional disparities in development and infrastructure.

Strengths of economic policies and strategies adopted since independence

1. Training of African public servants in various fields.
2. Expansion of industrialization through careful economic planning.
3. Improved infrastructure such as roads, railways, and ports.
4. Some countries achieved economic independence, e.g., Tanzania and Ghana advocating self-sufficiency.
5. Mobilization of people for development, e.g., Ujamaa village policies.

Weaknesses of economic strategies adopted since independence

1. Corruption accompanying Africanization of public positions leading to inefficiency.
2. Civil servants resisting political interference, leading to misuse of funds.
3. Settlement schemes established in marginal lands or away from infrastructure.
4. Bureaucratic administrative machinery modeled on colonial institutions, expensive and difficult to staff.

Contributions of economic strategies and policies adopted since independence

1. Development of infrastructure, e.g., new railway lines connecting Tanzania to Zambia.
2. Fast economic growth in some countries with increased agricultural production.
3. Establishment of new industries and dams for hydroelectric power.
4. Creation of employment opportunities through foreign investment.
5. Encouragement of individual efforts to accumulate wealth.

Social Changes: Education after independence

Objectives of Education in Africa after Independence

• To promote self-reliance, social justice, national unity, economic development, equity, and scientific literacy.
• To promote African cultural values neglected by colonial education.
• To eradicate racialism in the education sector.
• To eliminate dependency on colonial masters in all spheres of life.

Features of Education in Africa after independence

• Religious organizations continued sponsoring and running schools.
• Training of local staff, infusion of African values and local life patterns.
• Emphasis on academic education due to previous vocational focus.
• Expansion of university education, e.g., University of Dar es Salaam and University of East Africa.
• Continued use of colonial education structures due to shortage of skilled personnel.

Objectives of Health services after Independence in Africa

• To expand modern health facilities for African citizens.
• To increase living standards.
• To reduce infant mortality and maternal death rates.
• To remove racial discrimination in health services.

Features of Health Services After independence

• Improved health services through Ujamaa villages.
• Five-year development plans improving rural health services.
• Recognition of medical auxiliaries and free health services due to socialism.
• Health aid received in the 1970s and 1980s, later user charges introduced due to economic crisis.

Strengths of provision of health services in Africa after independence

• Provision of free health services enabling many Africans to access care.
• Training of non-Africans to take charge of health sectors.
• Provision of vaccines to eradicate epidemic diseases.
• Establishment of health training institutions.
• Reduction in infant mortality.
• Adoption of alternative medicine.

Objectives of provision of water services after independence

• To improve provision of clean and reliable water to all citizens.
• To improve sanitation levels.
• To provide equitable distribution of water infrastructure.
• To ensure good health through clean water availability.

Success of provision of water services after independence

• Establishment of boreholes and dams for water preservation.
• Licensing of private companies to provide bottled water.
• Establishment of water treatment plants.
• Provision of piped water infrastructure.

Weaknesses in the provision of health services after independence

• Lack of adequate financial resources.
• Poor planning and lack of infrastructure.
• Failure to research local traditional medicines leading to high expenditure on imported medicines.
• Increase in incurable diseases such as HIV/AIDS, diabetes, and cancer.
• Lack of well-trained personnel and corruption affecting medicine distribution.
• Promotion of Western medicine approaches by international drug manufacturers.

Changes in provision of water services in Africa after independence

Availability of clean water is vital for health and sanitation. Good sanitation cannot exist without clean and reliable water supply.

Objectives of provision of housing services after independence

• To establish modern housing for Africans.
• To promote sanitation for citizens.
• To eradicate racial discrimination in housing.
• To promote better urban planning.
• To provide adequate accommodation and eliminate slums.

The pattern of housing distribution after independence

• Best houses located in urban centers such as Dar es Salaam, Harare, Mombasa, and Nairobi.
• Best houses owned by European and Asian communities; most Africans lived in poorly constructed houses.
• Population increase in urban centers after independence.
• Use of local materials for rural housing construction.
• Tall buildings mark main urban centers.

Steps taken to change the colonial pattern of housing distribution after independence in Tanzania

• Government control of land allocation; freehold land reverted to government ownership with rent payments.
• Control of building and land to alleviate urban housing pressure; establishment of National Housing Corporation (NHC).
• Lack of systematic policy to manage rapid urban growth.
• Emphasis on low-cost construction materials to provide housing for more people.

Challenges facing the provision of housing services after independence

• Lack of qualified human resources, e.g., town planners.
• Increase in squatter settlements due to rapid population growth.
• Corruption and bias in fund allocation favoring middle class over the poor.
• Beneficiaries unable to pay rents, undermining efficiency.
• Bias in project implementation disadvantaging low-income earners.

Establishment of national military and legal institutions

Governments have the responsibility to safeguard national security. After independence, African governments established their own armed forces and police to ensure security.

Objectives of establishing national armed forces

• To promote internal security and integrity.
• To protect the country from external aggression.
• To participate in nation-building activities.
• To provide assistance during national emergencies.

Functions of the national armed forces

• Safeguard national security from external aggression.
• Assist in preserving internal security.
• Assist the public during emergencies such as floods, famine, and fires.
• Participate in nation-building activities like road and bridge construction.
• Take part in peacekeeping missions, e.g., UN operations in Congo.

Strengths of military forces after independence

• Assisted in preserving internal security, e.g., during attempted coup in Kenya in 1982.
• Participated in UN peacekeeping missions in Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Lebanon.
• Safeguarded national security from external aggression, e.g., Tanzania’s campaign against Idi Amin’s forces in 1978.
• Naval forces fought criminals such as Somali pirates along the Indian Ocean.
• Military personnel enrolled in higher education, improving public relations.

National legal institutions

These institutions ensure administration of justice through courts of law, preserving law and order without denying rights.

Objectives of the national legal institutions

• To settle disputes among parties.
• To guarantee rule of law for all citizens.
• To assist in law development.
• To protect the constitution.
• To administer justice.
• To swear in senior government members such as Prime Ministers and Presidents.

Functions of the national legal institutions

• Ensure all citizens are protected under the law and offenders are sentenced.
• Provide for administration of estates of deceased owners.
• Interpret laws and determine penalties and compensations.
• Protect national constitutions by ensuring constitutional compliance.
• Settle disputes using the constitution.

Strengths of national legal institutions

• Training of many legal professionals.
• Based on equality and fairness.
• Flexible and embraces traditional conflict resolution methods.
• Benefit from international practices and traditions.
• Help reduce backlog of genocide trials, e.g., Gacaca courts in Rwanda.

Weaknesses of national legal institutions

• Interference by senior executives undermining justice administration.
• Illiteracy and ignorance hampering efficiency.
• Complications due to establishment of kadhi courts for Islamic issues.
• Cultural traditions sometimes contradict official legal institutions.