PRE COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES

Basic concepts:-
  1. Human labour
  2. Means of labour
  3. Objects of labour
  4. Relations of production
  5. Mode of production
  1. Human labour: – Is a purposeful activity directed at the production of necessary product. Human labour includes personal factors in the production process such as skills, experience, scientific and technological knowledge. Labour is therefore the primary condition for human life because for man to survive he must satisfy his wants.
  2. Means of labour: – These are things people use in production that is the tools of production. These tools include machines, hoes and more. Production is aided by the instruments of labour.
  3. Objects of labour – These are things that are subjected to man‟s labour or they are things upon which man‟s labour is applied land being the most common object.
  4. Relation of production – is the process of production people act on nature and the same time enter into relations with one another. The relations of production are determined by the form of ownership of the means of production and distribution of the products of labour. That is to say is the absence or existence of classes and exploitation in the society.
  5. Mode of production – This is the combination of productive forces and the relations of production. The productive forces include human labour, means of labour and objects of labour. The modes of production are communal, slavery and feudal modes.
MODES OF PRODUCTION IN PRE – COLONIAL AFRICA
The modes of production in pre – colonial Africa included:-
    1. Communal mode of production
    2. Slave mode of production
    3. Feudal mode of production
A. COMMUNIAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
This is the oldest system of social relations and preside all the other modes of production. It marked the rise of society from sheer animalism to human society. The main activities were hunting and gathering.
OR
This is the earliest form mode of production in human history where evolution of society started, people were powerless before the environment and depended on whatever nature gave them for food such as insects, roots and tools involved were; stones, arrows etc
Examples of societies practicing communal mode:-
Maasai of East Africa
Fulani of West Africa
Khoikhoi of South Africa
FEATURES OF COMMUNAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
  1. Collective ownership – There was collective ownership of major means of production. E.g. Land was owned by the whole society. It led to absence of exploitation because means of production were not owned by few people.
  2. Low level of production forces – It was characterized by low level of production forces because the tools were mode out of stones.
  3. Absence of trading activities – absence of surplus lead to absence of trade because whatever produced was consumed.
  4. Low level of production – This was due to low level of tools of production, that means non surplus and whatever produced was consumed.
  5. No exploitation – There was no any exploitation because of collective ownership.
NB: – This mode changed within time depending of discovery of iron tools which increased production leading to surplus which transformed to exploitative modes to exploitative modes.
B.
SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION
This is the first exploitative mode of production. Here a person became an absolute Property of another man. Slaves dominated by slave masters. It should be noted that many African societies transformed directly from primitive communalism to feudalism as a result slave mode was not well developed.
It was highly practiced in Egypt, Slaves built pyramids.
FEATURES OF SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION
  1. Existence of two antagonistic classes.
There was existence of two antagonistic classes, that is slaves and slave masters. Slaves were producers of their own material requirement‟s and surplus products for their masters.
  1. Private ownership. There was private ownership of the major means of production, whereby means of production are slaves and are owned by slave masters.
  2. Existence of exploitation.
It was characterized by exploitation of man by man, because Slaves were the ones who were involved in production and whatever they produced was appropriated by the slave masters.
  1. Relatively advanced tools.
The level of productive forces was still low but relatively advanced than under communal mode of production. Production relatively advanced leading to surplus.
  1. Relatively high level of political institutions.
This is due to the use of better tools of production which increased production which supported increase in population leading to formation of states or Kingdoms.
NB: – The slave mode of production later declined due to conflicts between the slaves and slave masters over exploitation of the slaves by slaves masters. The decline of this mode, paved way for the rise of another mode known as feudal mode of production.
WHY PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES DID NOT DEVELOP (ADVANCE) SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION
The Following are the reasons showing clearly that the pre-colonial Africa did not develop slave as mode of production:-
    1. Slavery existed in few parts of Africa as an institution and not as a mode of production these areas were;
  • In Zanzibar; where by slavery existed after Sultan Seyyid Said shifted his capital from Muscat-Oman to Zanzibar in 1840, so slaves were taken from Central and East Africa to perform various activities or tasks in Zanzibar island like domestic activities such as cooking, mopping, fetching water, keeping gates (watch), taking care of elders and children and others offered labour in cloves and coconut plantations.
  • In Egypt; where by slaves were taken from western Sudan and forest areas to perform various activities during Pharaoh‟s regime (Period)(rule), these activities were such as constructing canals, making calendar, building tombs, performing various domestic activities.
  • Maghreb societies (Morocco,Tunisia and Algeria); slaves were taken from various parts of Western Africa And Northern East Africa to perform various activities in Maghreb societies, for example they were taken to offer their labour in Agriculture like palm dates and domestic activities.
  • Slavery co-existed together with feudalism in many parts of Africa. In Africa slave mode of production was not noted as the mode of production simply because the only mode of production in those areas was feudalism for example in Zanzibar the mode of production was feudalism however slavery also existed there.
  • In Pre -colonial African societies there was no slave masters or class of slave masters which showed clearly that the mode of production existed in pre -colonial African societies was not slavery and rather it was feudalism.
  • The level of development of productive forces used during the transition from primitive to feudalism showed that the slavery (Slave mode of production) did not exist in Africa for example some societies which were in transition to feudalism decided to use hoe to cultivate on the land which showed as the mode of production existed was feudalism based on land ownership.
    • TRANSITION FROM SLAVERY TO FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
    The Major factors for the decline of slavery and the emergence of feudal mode of production were as follows:-
      1. Improvement of productive forces during the slavery; changed the social and technical relation of production and geared to the decline of slave mode of production and the rise of feudalism.
      2. Existence of class struggle in slavery. The series of slaves uprising against the masters at the end of the day led to collapse of slave mode of production and hence emergence of feudalism.
      3. The Failure of the productive forces to correspond with social and technical relational production (relation of production). According to Karl Marx (1818-1883) pointed out that if productive forces and social and technical relation of production in a certain mode of production are not going hand in hand with the existing mode of production then such mode of production will collapse and pave a way to another mode of production.
      4. Slaves lacked interest in labour; they frequently destroyed the equipment of production owned by slave masters hence slavery collapsed.
      5. The cruel exploitation of slaves and ruthlessness and oppression done by the save masters to slaves led the slaves to revolt against the slave masters hence slaves became free from being controlled by the slave masters this led to the collapse of slavery(slave mode of production).
      6. The Slave owners (slave maters) with vast number of slaves were not interested in including the tools of production; they continued to use the old productive forces which automatically led to the collapse of slave mode of production.
      7. The constant military campaigns led to the number of slaves to drop down and the prices to get slaves increased this led slave masters to fail to continue with this mode of production (slavery).
    FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
    This was the second exploitative mode of production based on private ownership of land. It was common in Africa since 14th to 19th century.
    Example of societies practiced feudalism:-
    • Haya in Tanganyika
    • Zulu in South Africa
    FEATURES OF FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
      1. Existence of two dominant classes there were dominant classes that is the feudal lords and peasants. The feudal lords / land lords controlled/owned land and peasants were employed by them.
      2. Private ownership.
      It was characterized by private ownership as in the major means of production were controlled by the feudal lords. Example: – Land and cattle were property of the feudal lords. If peasants wanted to use the land, they had to pay.
        1. Exploitation
        It was characterized by exploitation of man by man because major means of production were controlled by a few people who are the feudal / land lords. Peasants were exploited through payment of rent.
          1. Advanced tools of production.
          The level of productive forces was advanced which led to high level of production; this led to availability of surplus.
          PRE – COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES
          At the time of colonization, most of pre–colonial African societies were in the communal mode of production but in transition to the feudal mode of production. Some societies were in the feudal mode of production. The slave mode of production was not well developed because most of the Africa societies transformed from the communal mode directly to the feudal mode of production.
          There were various characteristics of pre – colonial African societies
            1. The family was the basic unit of production. This limited the division of labour and it was a hindrance to the development of science and technology, consequently agricultural production was always low in pre – colonial Africa.
            2. The level of productive forces was very low because the tools used were made of stones. The use of primitive tools led to low levels of production which in turn contributed to the absence of surplus.
            3. Land was the commonest object of labour; its distribution was on cultural values and traditions. In clan or
              ganization land was distributed by the clan head on customary laws.
            4. There were some class societies in pre–colonial Africa. For example under the slave mode of production; there was a class of slave masters and the slaves and in feudal mode of production was characterized by a class of land lords/ feudal lords, and peasants.
            5. The major economic activities were agriculture and pastoralism. Agriculture was mainly carried out by feudal societies and it was common in the interlacustrine region. Pastoralism was mainly practiced by societies that level in the rift valley region for example the Maasai of East Africa.
            6. The pre–colonial African societies were pre–capitalist because there are three modes of production. I.e. communal, slavery and Feudal modes of production. The capitalist mode of production was introduced during colonialism.
            1. Production in pre–colonial Africa was mainly for consumption and not for the market. Production for the market was introduced during colonialism whereby Africans were producing raw materials for the export market.
          NOTE: – It should be noted that the pre–colonial African societies were not at the same level of development.
          WHY SOME AFRICAN SOCIETIES WERE ABLE TO DEVELOP THE FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION/REASONS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
          The Pre–colonial African societies were not static or unchanging they went through various transformations that were influenced by the nature of the environment, climate and soil fertility.
          Some factors enabled some African societies to be able to transform from other modes of production to the feudal mode of production.
          There are various factors that contributed to the rise of feudalism in Africa:
          1. Nature of the environment
          Those areas in African that had fertile soils and received enough rainfall throughout the year supported agriculture on a large scale thus leading to the increase in production which facilitated the rise of feudalism.
          1. Advancement of science and technology
          The development of science and technology which was due to the making and using of iron tools led to drastic changes in agricultural production, this played a crucial role in the rise of feudalism in Africa.
          1. Increase in population
          The increase in population was due to increase in food supplies and standard of living. The increase in population resulted into shortage of land that facilitated the rise of feudalism due to private ownership of land.
          1. Existence of strong political institutions
          The existence of strong political institutions for example states; played a big role in the rise of feudalism in Africa, these political institutions led to private ownership of land that led to the rise of feudalism.
          1. Shortage of land
          The shortage of land and its increase in value contributed to the development of productive forces since the people were conditioned to use small plots of land. Such factors threatened the existence of communal mode of production consequently paved a way to the increase of feudalism.
          1. Strong and well disciplined army
          The Strong and well disciplined army led to the establishment of feudal societies and feudal states because the army was used by their leaders to go and conquer the areas of their neighbouring kingdoms hence increase the land for their societies for example in Buganda, Kabaka used army to conquer Bunyoro-Kitare under Kabalega also in South Africa were Shaka used army
          with establish Zulu Kingdom by conquering small kingdoms.
          1. Growth and control of trade
          Trade was one among the reasons which led to emergence of some feudal societies. Societies which engaged in trade acquired iron tools and guns and these were used in agricultural production and expansion and consolidation of feudal societies/states. For Example the Buganda kingdom which engaged in trade got iron tools which helped them to get involved in permanent agricultural production of crops such as Banana that ensured constant supply of food and led to the establishment of permanent settlement.
          INFLUENCE OF MFECANE IN THE FORMATION OF STATES DURING THE 19TH CENTURY.
          THE MFECANE
          Mfecane is a Ngoni word used to refer to the wars and disturbances which accompanied the rise of the Zulu state under Shaka from 1818. The Mfecane can also be defined as the time of trouble in South Africa. It was a great upheaval which affected areas as far as Western part of Tanzania. The Mfecane dominated the first hold of the 19th century in South Africa.
          Causes of the Mfecane:-
          1. Population pressure
          Zulu land is part of the Eastern corridor of South Africa between the Drakensburg Mountains and the Indian Ocean. Due to the favorable climate and absence of diseases such as malaria, its population tended to increase rapidly. As the population increased conflicts between those societies became common and intensified leading to the Mfecane.
          1. Land shortages
          The people who occupied Zulu land were farmers, but the existing land was not enough due to population pressure, therefore the search for more land caused conflicts that later contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.
          1. The coming of the Boers
          During the Boer Trek, the Boers left Cape Town away from British control and moved into the interior of South Africa, the penetration of the Boers into the interior of South Africa intensified the pressure on land which led to conflicts that caused the Mfecane.
          1. The role of Shaka
          The outbreak of the Mfecane can also be attributed to the role of Shaka. Shaka pursued an aggressive and expansionist policy to expand his Kingdom, Zulu state. He attacked many states in the attempt of expanding his state, this action created conflicts that contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.
          1. Control of profitable trade
          The need to control trade along the Delgoa Bay is one of the factors responsible for the outbreak of the Mfecane. Trade contacts with the coast were very important because it was associated with acquisition of guns that can be used for conquest and expansion.
          Effects of the Mfecane in East and Central Africa
          The Mfecane had a tremendous impact in East and Central Africa; some of the effects had a far reaching impact to Africa.
          1. Formation of states
          The Mfecane led to state formation because the severity of these wars led to formation of strong armies for protection, but these armies were later used for conquest and expansion thus forming states. Examples of these states are the Shangani states in Zimbabwe.
          1. Spread of Ngoni speaking people
          The most permanent results of the Mfecane were the spread of the Ngoni speaking people. These people were called various names in different parts of Africa. They were called the Ngoni in Tanzania, the matebele in Zimbabwe and Kololo in Zambia.
          1. Introduction of Military techniques
          The Mfecane led to the introduction and spread of new military techniques such as the cow horn style which involved surrounding the enemy.
          1. Introduced of new weapons
          The Mfecane led to the introduction of new weapons for example the short stabbing spears called the Assegai; these weapons were introduced by the Ngoni from Africa who came to East and central Africa.
          1. Depopulation
          The Mfecane led to depopulation because many people lost their lives due to the frequent wars, the most affected region was veld where by many people lost their lives.
          1. Famine
          The Mfecane led to widespread of famine in East and central Africa. The frequent wars caused insecurity that disrupted agricultural production and finally causing famine/hunger.
          NOTE:-
          The Mfecane was a great upheaval in the history of Southern Africa because it had far reaching effects in the region.
          THE ROLE OF THE MFECANE IN STATE FORMATION:-
          The Mfecane refers to the wars and disturbances caused by Shaka and the rise of the Zulu state in South Africa. The Mfecane is also referred to as the time of trouble or turbulence in South Africa.
          The origin of the Mfecane was Shaka‟s expansionist policies that led to the conquering states.
          The Mfecane played a great role in state formation in Southern Africa.
          1. Political transformation
          The Mfecane led to political transformation in Southern Africa, the former age group communities were transformed into strong centralized states. The Mfecane also forced people to form strong armies to protect themselves from Shaka; these armies were later used for conquest and expansion hence forming states. Zulu is a good example of a state formed due to the Mfecane.
          1. Military advancement
          The Mfecane contributed to the introduction of new military weapons such as the short stabbing spears and the cow horn style. These weapons were used for conquest and expansion thus forming states.
          1. Emergency of strong leadership
          The Mfecane contributed to the rise of strong leadership; this was needed for protection from the Mfecane. Strong leadership had a big role to play in state formation because the leaders united the people to form states.
          1. Migrations
          The societies through which they passed were forced to form strong states to protect themselves from the Mfecane. The movement of the Ngoni from South Africa was not a peaceful process it involves wars that necessitated unity among the people.
          NOTE: – The Mfecane was a great upheaval in history of Southern Africa; it dominated the first half of the 19th century in Southern Africa.
          THE ROLE OF THE LONG DISTANCE TRADE IN THE FORMATION OF STATES IN EAST AFRICA
          The long distance trade in East Africa refers to the type of trade that took place between the people of the interior of East Africa and the ones from the coast. The main participants were the Yao, Kamba, Nyamwezi and Baganda from the interior and the Arabs and Swahili traders from the coast. The main items traded were guns, beads and glassware that came from the coast and slaves, ivory, tortoise shells and copper from the interior of East Africa.
          The main medium of exchange was batter trade system, which is exchange of goods for goods.
          The long distance trade provided a crucial role in the formation of states in East Africa as follows.
          1. Accumulation of wealth
          Those African chiefs who monopolized trade in pre–colonial African accumulated a lot of wealth that was used to build state in East Africa such as Buganda and Bunyoro. Kings such as Mutesa of Buganda, Kabalega of Bunyoro and Nyungu ya Mawe of Ukimbu accumulated a lot of wealth that was used to build strong states.
          1. Introduction of guns
          The long distance trade led to the introduction of guns into the interior of East Africa. These guns were used to strengthen armies that were used for conquest and expansion.
          Most of the states in East Africa were established through conquest and expansion.
          1. Active participation in agriculture
          The long distance trade encouraged people to participate actively in agriculture to produce goods that can be exchanged during the trade. Active participation in agriculture increased agricultural production which accommodated in high population, this contributed to the formation of states. States such as Buganda, Karagwe and Bunyoro were formed in those areas where agriculture was active.
          1. Emergency of strong leaders
          The long distance contributed to the emergence of strong leaders such as Mkwawa of the Hehe and Mutesa of Buganda. These leaders played a fundamental role in the emergence of states in East Africa by uniting the people
          1. Migrations
          The long distance trade encouraged migrations in East Africa. People moved from one place to another to take part in exchange of goods. The migration of people contributed to permanent settlement that had a role to play in state formation.
          1. Development of towns
          The long distance trade contributed to the development of towns in East Africa, these include Ujiji, Tabora and Bagamoyo. These areas acted as trading centers therefore they attracted many pe
          ople thus contributed to the state formation.
          1. Growth of trade routes
          The long distance trade contributed to the development of trade routes in East Africa. These routes opened the interior of East Africa.
          THE ROLE OF ISLAM IN FORMATION OF STATES DURING THE 19THCENTURE
          A Jihad is a holy war in Islam. Jihads were one of the most significant events that dominated in West Africa during the 19th century; they were mainly led by Othman Dan Fodio. Jihads can be traced back as far as the 10th century when young Fulani immigrates with Islamic knowledge in politics influenced other people to start holy wars.
          Jihads under the umbrella of Islam played a fundamental role
          in state formation in West Africa, states such as Sokoto, Mandika and Tokoro were a result of Jihads.
          How, Jihads as an islamic war contributed to state formation in Pre–colonial Africa
          1. Unification
          The Jihads acted as a unifying factor that brought people together under one umbrella. Islam became the official ruling ideology of the state. The unity provided by Islam was very crucial in state formation. The Islamic law „sheria‟ proved the alternative model of government with which to compare and attack their rulers. Conversion of nonbelievers was an essential duty of all Muslims.
          1. Formation of strong armies
          The Jihads were characterized with the establishment of strong armies; these armies were later used for conquest and expansion thus forming states. This was responsible for the formation for states such as Sokoto caliphate and Hausa states.
          1. Emergency of strong leaders
          Jihad contributed to the rise of strong leadership; these leaders were seen as Muslim reformers who managed to create strong leadership under their leaders like futa Djallon in Guinea in 1725 and the Sokoto caliphate.
          1. Control of trade routes
          The Jihads led to the control of trade routes by the Jihad leaders. These trade routes attracted many people. The wealth accumulated was used to build strong states. Trade also accumulated guns that were used for conquest and expansion thus forming strong states such as Sokoto caliphate.
          1. Consolidation of Feudalism
          Jihads contributed to the consolidation of Feudalism as a mode of production, land was controlled by the Fulani, and the weapons accumulated were used to build states in West Africa.
          PRE–COLONIAL EDUCATION AND CULTURE
          Culture refers to the total way of life; it includes education, science and technology, political systems, and traditions. Education refers to the transformation of norms, skills and knowledge from one generation to another. Under normal circumstances, education must grow out of the nature of the environment; therefore the most outstanding feature of pre– colonial education was its relevance to Africa.
          Education is one of the pivotal roles in any type of society for the preservation of the uses of the members and maintenance of the social structure.
          These are two types of education namely
          1. Formal education
          2. Informal education
          1. Formal education:-
          Formal education is that type of education that follows specific programs; there is a defined syllabus and curriculum.
          1. Informal education:-
          This refers to that type of education whereby young people acquire knowledge and skills by imitating the elders. It is based on one‟s observations. Informal education is characterized with the absence of a syllabus but it involved active participation of the learners in games and plays.
          It was progressive as it involved all the stages of the physical emotional and mental development of the child.
          It should be noted that there was formal education in pre–colonial Africa to a limited extent. Literacy was concentrated along Nile, North Africa and Ethiopia. This type of literacy was connected with religion, it was mainly found in universities such as Al
          – Azhar in Egypt, Fez in Morocco and Timbuktu in Mali.
          OBJECTIVES OF PRE-COLONIAL EDUCATION
                1. It produced a well rounded personality who could fit well in society in all aspect of life.
                1. It enabled the young to abide to the culture of the society such as good moral and social conduct, loyalty and respect to all.
          (iii)Pre-colonial education moulded the young people to accept, practice and perpetuate the traditions and culture of the society.
          (iv) Pre-colonial education prepare graduates to assume the duties and responsibilities of adult, through at low social level, in accordance with their age and merital status.
          (v)Pre-colonial education also brought up children to value the wisdom of their
          elders, a vital component pre-colonial oral culture, and much of what they absorbed from their elders was instilled by role-learning.
          (iv) Furthermore, pre-coloial education helped children to learn the history of their ancestors and the oral traditions and customs of their community or nation.
          Features of pre–colonial education in Africa
              1. Informal
          Pre–colonial education in Africa was mainly informal; the young acquired knowledge by imitating the elders. In many African societies elders told stories around the fire places in the evening. These sto
          ries and all the information that the young received are what are called informal education.
              1. Relevant to the society.
          It was relevant to the society because it was born out of the environment of the concerned society. It produced well rounded individuals who could fit in their societies; it targeted self community and survival of the society. These was nothing from the alien community because everything stormed from the traditional and customs of the society in question.
              1. It was progressive.
          Pre–colonial education was progressive because it involved all stages of physical, emotional and mental development of the child. The young people were taught various specialist skills which followed a definite pattern starting from the simple to the complex ones.
              1. It put emphases on moral and social conduct. Pre–colonial education aimed at instilling good morals and social conduct to the young people. African societies had some accepted core valves and elders used to condemn strongly any action or behavior that tended to undermine the promotion of the accepted valves.
              2. Encouraged specializations.
          Pre–colonial African education encouraged specialization in certain fields. It aimed at preparing the young members of the community for specific responsibilities in future.
          People trained in activities such as medicine, iron working basketry and pottery.
              1. Aimed at procreation
          Pre–colonial education aimed at procreation of production. The existing education system in the society shaped and stimulated production within the society. All activities aimed at production as to sustain the society.
              1. Lacked uniformity
          Pre–colonial African education lacked uniformity. It varied from society to society depending on the economic, social and environmental conditions of a given society. Each society had its own customs and traditions depending on the environment of that given society.
          LIMITATIONS OF PRE–COLONIAL AFRICAN EDUCATION
                  1. The programs of teaching were restricted to a certain period in the life of the individual especially at the time of initiation. The education system did not have specific program for older people.
                  2. It relied so much on memory and oral traditions; there was no way newly acquired knowledge, skills could be recorded or preserved for the future. Dependence on memorials led to loss of vital information that could be passed on the young people.
                  3. Pre–colonial education did not have a specific and organic syllabus; each society had its own education which was based on the culture of that society. It should be noted that the environment determined the nature of occupations in pre -colonial Africa; this also shaped the content of education given to that particular society.
                  4. Pre–colonial Africa education was characterized by parochialism because it was centered on a particular tribe and clan units. It readily responded to
          the needs of that particular tribe or region in question therefore it did not address the issues of the whole nation at large.
                  1. Pre–colonial African education lacked a social philosophical base that could have introduced a sense of uniformity and conformity. There was absence of a common language that could have united all the tribes thus ensuring skills are not confined within one particular tribe.
                  2. Pre–colonial African education was too mythical, it relied on oral traditions; whereby many of the stories given by the elders cannot be proved scientifically. The elders had a tendency of being bias towards their tribe.
          NOTE: – It should be note that despite its limitations. Pre–colonial African education paved a crucial role in development of African societies.
          CENTRAL AND DECENTRALIZED SOCIETIES IN PRE–COLONIAL AFRICA
          In these societies the power is centralized to a single person and the system of leadership was hereditary in nature.
          The examples of centralized societies are Toro, Buganda, Bunyoro of East Africa, Asante, Dahomey, Benin, Oyo, Tokolo and Sokoto of West Africa.
          Characteristics of centralized societies:-
              1. They extended over larger areas for the reason that territories were annexed and put under the governor who ruled on behalf of the King e.g. Zulu state and Buganda Kingdom.
              2. The Kings wielded political power that represented state authority. The centralization of power ensured national unity among the members of the society. As the King had supreme power, then he commanded wealth loyalty from his subjects, respect and prestige.
              3. The throne (power) was hereditary in nature that Kings named their successor from among their children or relatives. It was the custom of the King to nominate his successor from amongst his children (family members) when he was living, if he died without appointing him, the elders and other important official have to take the responsibility of appointing the best child to take the throne.
              4. The internal stability of the Kingdom and defense from external aggression of neighboring states forced these societies to set up stable military machinery. This was aimed at maintaining the homogeneity of the Kingdom.
              5. Despite the hierarchy in administration the Kings and their officials exercised authoritarianism rule (Absolutism) towards the subjects or followers. The council of elders whose role was to adult the king. They assisted him.
              6. The King was vested with juridical authority. His courts arbitrated all disputes and misunderstanding within the Kingdom as the King was the highest court of appeal.
              7. The King controlled the wealth of the Kingdom. He directed on how land should be used by all members of the society, for example land for agricultural activities and animal husbandry. He looted property and controlled foreign trade, through these means Kingdom accumulated much wealth in his state and he was expected to share generously with his subjects.
              8. The expansionist policy of conquest and raids accumulated much wealth for the Kingdom. The war captures were distributed to faithful servants and his hard working soldiers to make the harder and become braver.
          CASE STUDY
          THE BUGANDA KINGDOM
          The Buganda Kingdom was geographically on the shores of Lake Victoria; that means it is found in the interlacutrine region. It grew to its apex by the mid of the 19th C. This was highly centralized monarchy and was one of the daughter states that came into existence after the collapse of the vastly expanded BunyoroKitara Kingdom.
          By the second half of the 19th C Buganda became one of the strongest and largest Kingdoms in the interlacustrine region. They conquest and controlled several Kingdoms. Buganda Kingdom was under the leadership of Kabaka Mutesa.
          Factors responsible for the rise of the Buganda
            1. Centralization of power. The Kabaka governed the political organ and was considered as overall ruler. All political power was concentrated in his hands. He appointed all leaders on merit and dismissed all chiefs. His decision was final and binding. There was a hierarchy in administration, whereby there were a number of chiefs below the Kabaka. They helped to spread Kabaka‟s authority throughout the Kingdom. The Kabaka‟s throne was hereditary but there was no royal family / clan
            2. Organized Administrative System. The Kabaka governed the Kingdom with assistance of advisory council (Lukiiko). The council constituted the Prime Minister (Katikiro), the treasure (Muhanika) and the Chief justice (Mugema) as well as country chiefs; all these were Kabaka‟s nominees. The legislative council gave advice to the Kabaka and enacted laws.
          1. Stable military machinery.
          Kabaka established strong and well disciplined army for the sake of maintaining political stability in the state and defend the kingdom from external aggression. The Kabaka used army to maintain law and order, to pin down the rivals powers and pursued expansionist policy.
          1. Bureaucratic system of government.
          The Bureaucratic system was employed in order to ensure effective administration of the Kingdom; whereby the whole of Buganda was divided into two countries (Gomborola), the sub–countries into parishes (Miluka) and finally perishes into sub–parishes. At all level the chief were Kabaka‟s appointees.
          1. Kabaka’s marriage in each clan.
          The Buganda Kingdom had approximately 52 clans, each with its own leadership. These provided the basis for the political unity for the whole administration of the Kingdom. For the sake of political harmony in the Kingdom, Kabaka married almost from every important clan. Hence intermarriages were a political weapon and created the possibility of getting Kabaka from any clan.
          1. Agriculture.
          Good climate and fertile soil favored crop cultivation. Due to the availability of goods, the population of the Kingdom began in tinkles and became flooded. Also some of them engaged in livestock keeping (pastoralism).
          1. Trade
          The Buganda Kingdom developed trading contacts with he neighbors that were under governance of Kabaka. Because the Buganda were excellent bark clothes manufactures they participated in commercial activities by exchanging bark clothes for items such as iron tools and with the Bunyoro and cow , cattle, groundnuts and simsim with the iteso , langi and Ankelo.
          NB: It is clear stated that the second half of 19th C, Buganda was one of the highly centralized Kingdom in the intercontinental region, Kingdom that had sound organization in the field of politics economic and social set up.
          DECENTRALIZED SOCIETIES (STATES)
          In decentralized societies, basic unit of political organization was a clan, various clans constituted a tribe. These societies were clan head loyal clan authority. The clan head was chosen from among the elders when they merited the qualities of leadership such as his influence, wisdom and age, wealth.
          Decentralized societies, had the following characteristics or attributes:-
          1. With equal rights to other members of the clan, the ruler had the responsibility of leading the clan but his position was hereditary. He resigned from power after the election of a new clan head, which took place whenever the former clan head became unpopular and was too old to perform his responsibilities.
          2. There were no outstanding armies; the defense of the clan was carried out by all able bodied people (men). This was due to the fact that these societies did not involve in expansionistic policy and wars were scarce.
          3. The clan elders works to solve internal conflicts but if they become difficult they were transferred to the general Assembly, voting made the final decision compared to the centralized societies in which the Kings made the ultimate decision and was final court of appeal.
          4. Society was responsible to impose the disciplinary measures to the wrong doe‟s society. Society administrated punishment to help criminals to reform in character.
          5. Decentralized societies / states had no control of the economy. They communally owned the major means of production.
          6. Intermarriage occurred. Those of the same clan were prevented to marry each other instead; the emphasis was placed upon those of different clans, aiming to prevent the inheritance of disease.
          CASE STUDY
          The Nyamwezi
          The Nyamwezi was located in the central part of Tanzania and often the best example of a decentralized society in East Africa.
          The Nyamwezi did not develop well organized political institution as those of centralized states of Kingdoms instead they evolved segmented system.
          The Nyamwezi were dominant in the long distance trade since they were involved in that trade and this was supported so much with their geographical location.
          The prominent leaders of the Nyamwezi society were Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe.
          The following are the factors that contributed to their strength.
          1. Nyamwezi society was comprised of various Chiefdom that cash was autonomous from each other. It is the historical fact that the formation of chiefdom depended on the number (volume) of the people each could hold. In the 1880‟s eminent political leaders like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe attempted to mobilize the Nyamwezi into strong and centralized political institution rooting into commercial enterprises.
          2.Ntemi chiefs. They governed small states in them and administered law and order. The Ntemi chiefs were not trained leaders as they are in to date systems of administration but they were mostly elders, who were elected rulers because of their age, knowl
          edge and experience in the daily life. A council of elders and lesser chiefs counseled and supported the Ntemi chief in their governance.
          1. Military machinery. Chiefdom established its own small and well disciplined army in order to ensure political harmony in the chiefdom. That army was entrusted the duty for executing the law, order and security within the chiefdom. Through their trade with the Arabs, the Nyamwezi accumulated fire arm, ammunitions and were armed with local weapons within these circumstances. Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe developed an outstanding army which enable them to expand the Nyamwezi chiefdom.
          2. Agriculture. The Ntemi organized and motivated people to involve themselves in crop production in order to avoid famine. They cultivated mainly grains also the Ntemi controlled the major means of production for the benefit of all clans, if any member of the society used the land illegally would interfere by imposing disciplinary measures.
          5.Trade. Between the 18th and 19th century, the Nyamwezi supplemented there agricultural activities with the involvement in the long distance trade with coastal Arabs and Swahili traders. The Ntemi chiefs supplied ivory in great Amount as there area was considered as paradise of ivory. They also provide copper which was extracted in Katanga region in the present country known as DRC and iron equipment, including hoes, axes and spears. The Nyamwezi too traders slaves, which were raided from the neighboring Kingdoms that were highly demanded by Seyyid Said.
          Nyamwezi commanded and supervised three caravan routes particularly from Tabora to Ujiji in the west, to Katanga in DRC, from Tabora to Karagwe Kingdom in the northwest, to Buganda and Bunyoro, from the Tabora to Lake Tanganyika in the South and from Tabora to the coast.

          AFRICA AND EUROPE IN THE 15TH CENTURY

          i. There are divergent views that have been advanced by various historians regarding the African continent when it came into contact with capitalist in Europe. According to Eurocentric scholars, they claimed that before the advent of colonial rule, African societies didn‟t have any kind of development however African scholars argued that the continent had achieved a significant level of development in economic, social and political aspects.
          Development can be defined as the improvement in economic, social and political aspects.
          ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
          i . Trade
          There are strong evidences of trading activities in pre colonial Africa. There were different types of trade i.e. local and long distance trade.
          Local trade was the type of trade that was conducted within a given community.
          Long distance trade was the type of trade which took place between one region and another. There was a long distance trade in east Africa which took place between the interior and coastal people of east Africa.
          The main participants were the kamba and nyamwezi from the interior and the Arabs and Swahili traders from the coast. ii . Agriculture
          By the fifteen century agriculture had developed in Africa. There were various types of agriculture in pre colonial Africa. These included permanent crop cultivation and shifting cultivation.
          Permanent crop cultivation took place in areas that received a lot of rainfall and fertile land. Mixed farming took place in those areas whose soil lost its fertility easily, thus forcing the farmers to shift from one piece of land to another land looking for fertile land. Mixed farming was widely practiced in the savanna region.
          iii Manufacturing industries.
          By the 15th century Africa had developed a number of manufacturing industries such as salt making and copper mining. Salt making took place at Tagaza and Bilma in West Africa and uvinza in Tanganyika. Salt was not only used as an ingredient but also for preserving perishables.
          Copper mining activities found in Africa by the 15th century. Copper was only used for making ornaments. In central Africa, the Katanga region was famous for mining and processing copper. Copper mining also took place along the Gwai River in Zimbabwe iv Maritime technology.
          To a certain extent African societies had developed maritime technology, this was around water bodies. The societies that had acquired this technology are the Ganda and kerewe in east Africa; these were making canoes that facilitated their movement along rivers and lakes.
          v Iron technology.
          By the 15th century most parts of Africa had developed the art of making iron and using iron. In Africa the knowledge of making iron and use of iron tools developed at different times and at different places. The first places to use iron were Ethiopians and Egyptians. At around 200BC Meroe & Axum became important sector for the production of iron
          POLITICAL SYSTEMS
          During the 15th century, there were various political organizations in pre colonial Africa. This included the following i Age set system.
          This refers to the allocation of social functions according to sex and age groups. This system was mainly practiced by pastoral societies such as the Maasai of east Africa. The Maasai assigned social functions according to age groups. Example from age of 0 – 8 no social functions were given, from 8 – 18 years, the boys were supposed to graze the animals. ii Clan organization.
          This refers to control by clan head. This system mainly developed in the savanna region. The main economic activities were mixed farming and shifting cultivation. Mixed farming involved the cultivation of crops and animal keeping. Shifting cultivation involved the movement from one place to another searching for fertile land because the soil easily loses its fertility. Shifting cultivation made land very important, therefore societies needed strong leadership that would control and distribute land thus the rise of clan organization.

          iii .State organization.

          The state is a large political unity with a het
          erogeneous population having a centralized system with powers to collect tributes. Most of the states in Africa were formed in the interlacustrine region which received heavy rainfall throughout the year. This type of environment supported the increase in production that led to increase in population thus contributing to the formation of states such as Buganda and Karagwe in east Africa.
          FACTOR FOR THE RISE OF STATE IN AFRICA
          There was feudal centralized state where the power was in hand feudula lords
          FACTOR FOR THE RISE OF STATE IN EUROPE
          1. Changing of Trade organization, (to mechantalism)
          2. Organization of security
          3. Encouragement of production within empires for market iv. Formation of foreign policy (colonial policy) abroad so as to have primitive accumulation through piracy, banditry and looting.
          COMPARE AND CONTRAST WESTERN EUROPEAN POLITICAL SYSTEM WITH AFRICAN ONES IN THE 15th CENTURY.
          i/ Comparison
          • Both were ruled by kings or queen or chiefs – Example, Mani Nzinga – Congo.
          • Function of the king were the same, In protection of citizens and defense for security for
          • Both defend or encourage exploitation of serfs by land lords.
          • Both encourage trade. Example:
          1. In Africa, were engage in long distance trade.
          2. In Europe – merchantile trade.
          ii/ Contrasts
          • Duration of the modal/ centralized state
          In Africa it was in pre- mature but in Europe of was reached, its mature
          • Emergence of merchants who challenged the rolling class while in Africa was not so
          • In Europe was Broad rolling class (complex) but in Africa was very parochial.
          • In Europe states Formation appeared aft
            er the turn of Roman empire for disintegration of slavery (and of slavery in Europe in Africa was not produced as a mode of production. • In Europe 15th , there was great changes in Feudalism, It was highest peak and break down to give room to capitalism.
          • Enclosure system in Europe while in Africa was not so
          • Highest level of education in Europe than Africa.
          1. Education
          This refers to the transmission of skills, knowledge and norms from one generation to the other. By the 15th century Africa had its own education system which was largely informal in character. The young people acquired knowledge by imitating the behavior of the elders. However it should be noted that there was literacy in pre colonial Africa especially along the Nile River in Egypt and Mali
          1. Religion
          There is strong evidence that by the 15th century Africa had its own religion. Religious ceremonies were presided over by community elders, Example the laibon of the Maasai and the clan heads of clan organization. These elders were responsible for supervising religious ceremonies like organizing sacrifices.
          SIGNIFICANCE OF TRADE IN THE SOCIETIES BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE
          1. Both trades found in Africa and Europe led to specialization where by a group of people emerged and specialized in different economic activities for example in Africa they emerged a group of specialized in agriculture, fishing, iron melting, pastoralism and trade as well as in Europe there was emerged of groups of people who specialized in different economic activities such as traders (merchant kings), people who specialized in farming etc.
          2. Both trade found in Africa and Europe during the 15thC led to the development of science and technology in African and European societies. For Example It led to the development of ship building and, marine technology and compass bearing where by traders used advanced to travel in other parts of the world to look for raw materials, market, cheap labour etc. while in Africa there was development of different science and technologies which enabled traders to travel from one areas to another. For Example In West Africa traders across Trans-Saharan desert used camels from (West Africa) to (North Africa) used horse as means of transport.
          3. Both trades found in Africa and Europe led to emergence of state (state formation). for example in Africa Ghana, Songhai, Mali, Oyo, Benin, Mwanamutapa empire, Mirambo empire as well as in Europe there was emergence of states especially in Britain and later on in France due to the trade. In Addition to that, the trade found in both Africa and Europe led to emergence of trading centers and growth of towns which later led to urbanization in both Africa and Europe. Example in Dodoma, Walata, Gao, Jere, but we also had some towns like Bagamoyo, Zanzibar, Mombasa, Kilwa, Pete, Lamu etc. as well as in Europe there ware towns due to trade such as Liverpool, Yorkshire, Manchester, Venice, etc.
          4. Both trades in Africa and Europe lead to emergence of goods and strong leaders who later controlled the state for example in Africa Mansa Kankan Musa (Mali), Askia Mohamed (Songhai), and Mwenemutapa (Mwenemutapa Empire).
          5. Both trades found in Africa and Europe led to emergence of strong army which was well disciplined to protect state and its routes for example in Britain there was emergence of navy army.
          6. Both trades found in Africa and Europe led to emergence of people who later became rich because of being involving in the system of exchange in the societies. For Example Kings and individual traders who involved were involved in the trade became rich. For Example in Africa Mansa Musa, Askia, Samouri Toure, Mirambo, Mwenemutapa and In Europe Kings also became rich because they got much profit from trade.
          7. Both trades found in Africa and Europe led emergence of strong faith because the trade lead to unity among the people in the society. For example the Trans-Saharan trade in Africa led to emergence of Islamic faith West and North Africa while in some East African societies there was emergence of Christianity due long distance trade (LTD) as well as in Europe there were emergence of Christianity due to trade conducted between European societies.
          8. Trades especially in Europe during 15thC lead to the growth of industries where by different industries were built using the w
            ealth accumulated from trade. For Example Textile industries, Agricultural equipment industries.etc
          9. Trade especially in Europe led to establishment of financial institutions like banks such as Barclays, House Lord in Britain after the merchant Kings and other. Traders had accumulated profit from the trade conducted between European nations and other continents of the world.
          IMPACTS OF TRADE (SYSTEM OF EXCHANGE) BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE DURING THE 15TH CENTURY
          1. The trade led to stagnation of African technology simply because Africans who were skillful and knowledgeable were taken as slaves to offer their labour in big plantations and mining established by European absentee owners in America during the 15thC.
          2. The Trade also led to exploitation of African natural resources such as minerals, raw materials etc was taken specifically for the development of European nations.
          by Europeans as Africans began to imitate what Europeans brought to African societies.
          1. Trade contact between Africa and Europe during the 15thC led to fall and rise of some African states. African states which existed before the contact between Africa and Europe during the 15thC collapsed like western sudanic states (Ghana, Songhai.etc.) while some other African states like Dahomey emerged due to the fact that their leaders and prosperity of the state depended on the triangular slave trade.
          2. Trade lead to the collapse of African trade that existed before the 15thC hence led to underdevelopment of African continent and development of European nations simply because it was that trade that culminated the situation for European development in all aspects (socially, economically and politically) and African underdevelopment in all aspects.
          3. The Contact between Africa and Europe during the 15thC paved way for African colonization simply because this trade is the one which led to the influx of agents of colonialism such as trades, missionaries and explorers started their colonial ambition in Africa to explore the potential areas such as agricultural areas, mineral areas, lakes (water bodies) etc. hence colonialism.
          SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
          BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE BY THE 15TH
          CENTURY
          SIMILARITIES
          1. Both Africa and Europe had developed in medicine technology to cure various diseases whereby they use roots, herbs and drugs to cure some diseases like malaria, cholera, etc.
          2. Both societies had developed in iron technology where by some agricultural tools and many things were made both in Africa and Europe; example in Africa iron technology was found in Mwenemutapa Empire, Engaruka and in Britain, France.etc.
          3. Both in Africa and Europe societies engaged in cultivation of crops; for example in Egypt there was a high development of farming activities especially through irrigation system alon
            g the river Nile especially during the dry seasons, In Zambezi basin there was agricultural development in which people practiced intensive terracing farming and in Europe there was use of irrigation system and use of scientific methods of farming during enclosure system
          4. Both societies engaged in handcraft activities for example both societies made things like pots, baskets, mats and other vessels for their own development.
          5.Both societies developed in navigation technology for example in Europe there was ship building industries compass direction and compass bearing where by European merchant were used to cut across big seas and ocean while in Africa societies used canoes and dhows as the major means of water transport for example along Nile river, along the shore of Lake Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa.etc. Canoes were used for fishing and ferrying people and goods from one place to another.
          1. Both societies (Africa and Europe) had developed in an architecture engineering technology. For example in the ancient Mwenemutapa Empire around Zimbabwe, Egypt and Sudan there were great architecture technology. for example in Zimbabwe they built 30/20 feet high by using stones and in Egypt at Giza plateau near Cairo the great pyramids consisted of two million of block of stones each weighing more than two tones like in Europe there were big buildings found in big towns of Europe like Paris, London.etc.
          2. Both societies made weapons for self defense, security and conquering weak states; for example both societies made weapons like swords, arrows, axes, spears, machetes, aves, shields and matchet guns.
          DIFFERENCES
            1. European societies were highly developed in animal breeding under enclosure system while Africa had not developed animal breeding under enclosure system.
            2. Africans were highly advanced in animal husbandry than European societies this might be even up to now.
            3. European societies were in transition from domestic (Cottage industries) to factory system (big manufacturing industries) than in Africa where there is no any sign of transition to factory system.
            4. European societies were advanced more in navigation technology than in Africa. for example by the 15thC European societies had ship building technology, compass direction and compass bearing which helped European merchant to cut across big oceans and seas to trade with other societies of the world while Africans used canoes to paddle and dhows in order to navigate in big rivers and along the shores of lakes and oceans.
            5. Europeans were more advanced in gun making and bombs than Africans; the gun smiths were better than those of Africa in 15thC. This shows the reason why the Europeans (particularly the Portuguese) managed to defeat African societies easily along the coast of Indian Ocean and managed to establish city states along East African coast.
          SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPEAN FEUDAL MODES OF PRODUCTION
          SIMILARITIES
            1. In both cases the major means of production were controlled by the feudal lords; land for example was controlled by the feudal lords. For the peasants to use it they had to pay rent such as rent in kind, where they had to give part of the produce to the feudal lords for using their lands. There were also rent in labor, where the peasants had to work on the land lords for specified period of time.
            2. In both cases feudalism was characterized by the existence of trading activities. In Africa there was the long distance trade which was conducted between the people of interior and coastal people of east Africa. In Europe there was mercantilism which involved conducting trade oversea searching for precious metals such as gold and silver.
            3. In both cases feudalism was characterized by the use of improved productive forces though the productive forces in Europe were more advanced than those in Africa. The use of better tools for production contributed to higher levels of production.
            4. In both cases feudalism was characterized by the exploitation of man by man. The peasants were exploited through the payment of rent. The peasant did not have land, thus they had to use the land of the landlords but they had to pay rent, such as rent in kind and rent in labor. It should be noted that, landlord took a bigger share than the peasants who were directly involved in the production process.
            5. In both cases feudalism was characterized by the existence of large political system such as states. The formation of states was due to surplus accumulation that supported increase in population thus forming states such as Buganda in east Africa and Spain in Europe.
          DIFFERENCES
            1. Feudalism in Europe took place between the 9th and 14th centuries while in Africa it took place between the 15th and 19th centuries, thus feudalism in Europe was stronger than in Africa. At the time when feudalism was emerging in Africa, it was ending in Europe paving way for the rise of capitalism.
            2. Feudalism in Europe was characterized by progressive technology while in Africa it was characterized by low levels of technology. In Europe, by the 15th they had developed the art of ship building which enabled them to conduct trading activities abroad.
            3. Feudalism in Europe emerged directly from slavery while in Africa, most of the societies transformed from the communal mode of production. This explains why the slave mode was not well developed in Africa.
            4. In Europe feudalism was characterized by a strong class structure and class struggle. There were two dominant classes which were antagonist to each other; these classes are the feudal lords and peasants. There was also class of the serfs. In Africa there were no sharp distinctions between these classes.
            5. Feudalism in Europe was characterized by development of cottage industries which were later transformed into big capitalist industries while in Africa there were handcraft industries such as salt making and iron working.
          SYSTEM OF EXCHANGE IN AFRICA DURING THE 15TH CENTURY
          Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services or the buying and selling of goods and services. Trade emerged in pre colonial Africa because no single society could produce all the goods it needed; societies produced those goods that they could produce and obtain those they could not produce through trade. There various trading activities in Africa before its contact with the colonialists.
          There were various types of trade in pre colonial Africa; these were the local trade and long distance trad
          e. Local trade was the type of trade that was conducted within a given community. The long distance trade was that type of trade that took place between two or more regions.
          THE LONG DISTANCE TRADE IN EAST AFRICA
          This was that type of trade that took place between the interior and the coastal people in east Africa. The main participants were the Baganda, Kamba, Yao and Nyamwezi from the interior and the Arabs and Swahili traders from the coast. The main types of goods that were exchanged were ivory and slaves from the interior and guns, clothes and beads from the cost.
          Impacts of the long distance trade in East Africa
          1. Formation of states.
          The long distance trade contributed to the formation of states such as Karagwe and Buganda. The trade introduced guns that facilitated conquest and expansion thus forming states. The chiefs who took part in the long distance trade acquired wealth that facilitated the formation of states.
          1. Development of towns.
          1. Introduction of Islam.
          It led to the introduction and spread of Islam in the interior of east Africa. The Arabs who came from the coast spread this religion. Islam up to now has a strong influence along the coast of east Africa were many people became Muslims, the way of eating and dressing depicts the ways of life of the Muslims.
          1. Development of the Kiswahili language.
          The long distance trade contributed to the development of Kiswahili language. The language has some Arabic words that are developed it. Kiswahili came to be the language used by the merchants over large areas of east Africa. The influence of Kiswahili in east Africa has widely grown; it is the national language of Tanzania.
          1. Opening of East Africa to the outside world.
          The long distance trade opened the interior of east African to the outside world. The people of east Africa supplied products that were needed outside, example slaves and gold received products from outside east Africa, example guns and clothes. The incorporation of east African to the outside world contributed to its under development.
          1. Increased influx of foreigners in Africa.
          The long distance trade led to the increased influx of foreigners such as the Arabs and Europeans. All these were rushing to east Africa to take part in the trade. It was nothing than that; these Europeans contributed to the colonization of Africa. g) Intermarriages.
          The long distance trade brought the Arabs to the coast of East Africa who intermarried with the Africans to produce mulattoes.
          h) The participants became rich.
          Those who participated in the long distance trade became very rich especially African chiefs. Chiefs like Tippu Tip and Musiri accumulated a lot of wealth from the long distance trade which was used to build strong states in Africa.
          SYSTEM OF EXCHANGE IN EUROPE DURING THE 15TH CENTURY
          MERCANTILISM 1500 – 1750 AD
          Mercantilism refers to an economic system of conducting trade over sea searching for gold and silver which led to the commercial revolution which was characterized with expansion of trading activities. Mercantilism was based on primitive accumulation of capital. The major participants in mercantile activities were Portugal, Spain, Britain and Holland.
          Features of mercantilism
          1. Bullionism.
          The policy of mercantilism was based on attracting large amounts of precious metals, gold and silver. The Portuguese and the Spanish made voyages to Africa and America simply searching for gold and silver that were needed in Europe.
          1. Expansionism
          Mercantilism was based on the belief of conducting commerce overseas so as to acquire gold and silver. It was this policy of expansionism which led to discovering of America by Spanish and Africa by the Portuguese.
          1. Protectionism.
          1. Militarism and national rivalry.
          Mercantilism was based on primitive accumulation of capital by using methods such as piracy and plundering. These activities forced Europeans countries to create strong armies to protect the merchants from being robbed. Mercantilism was also characterized by national rivalry, whereby countries went to war searching for gold and silver. Example the French fought with the British over the control of Canada.
          1. Formation of national states or national unification.
          Mercantilism forced European countries to form national states. It led to the rise of strong monarchical states that would be able to compete effectively with other European nations. Britain united with Wales, Scotland and Ireland to form the United Kingdom.
          1. Unequal exchange
          Mercantilism was based on unequal exchange; the European countries took valuable items of trade such as gold, ivory and slaves from Africa and bought back inferior items such as beads and looking mirrors.
          FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTED TO THE RISE OF MERCANTILISM IN EUROPE
          There are various factors that contributed to the rise of mercantilism in Europe;
          1. Improvement of science and technology.
          This played a great role to the rise of mercantilism. Maritime technology made it possible for the European countries to conduct trade overseas. The ships enabled the transportation of large quantities of goods to various countries in the world.
          1. Development of internal trade.
          The development of internal trade contributed significantly to the rise of mercantilism because it introduced various items of trade. These goods were exchanged with other goods during the Trans – Atlantic slave trade, the Europeans provided Africans with clothes and spirit in return for goods such as gold and silver.
          1. Enclosure system.
          The enclosure system involved passing laws by the parliament whereby wealthy land owners bought land from the peasants. The small peasants and common land in villages of Britain had to be grouped together and out under individual capitalist‟s farms. The enclosure system increased agricultural production that facilitated trading activities.
          1. Development of the banking system.
          There were various banks that were established in Britain e.g. Barclays bank. These banks contributed to the rise of mercantilism by providing loans and grants to the merchants who wanted to trade overseas.
          1. Rise of nation states.
          The rise of nation states contributed to the rise of mercantilism in Europe. European monarchies such as the Tudor monarchy played a great role in the rise of mercantilism by giving security to the merchants which encouraged them to engage in mercantile activities.
          f)Geographical discoveries.
          This was made by different scholars, contributed to the rise of mercantilism. Christopher Columbus discovered America which was followed by the establishment of capitalist enterprises such as farms and mining which encouraged trading activities.
          g) Rise of the Trans Atlantic slave trade.
          The Trans Atlantic slave trade was an economic system that involved three continents i.e. Africa, Europe and America. The trading system consolidated mercantilism by making it possible for European countries to trade with Africa and America. Africa provided slaves, America produced raw materials and Europe provided manufactured goods.
          THE ROLE OF THE TUDOR MONARCHY TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF MERCANTILISM IN ENGLAND
          Before the industrial revolution, the dominant form of capital in Western Europe was merchant capital, it was capital obtained from trade. Western Europe came into contact with the rest of the world through trade; this system of trade is known as mercantilism.
          The development of mercantilism in England went through two faces namely;
          1. First phase which took place from mid 15th C – mid 17th C.
          2. Second phase which took place from mid 17th C – mid 18th C.
          The first phase was associated with the Tudor monarchy was an English dynasty that descended from King Henry VII to Elizabeth I.
          The Tudor monarchy played a significant role in the rise of mercantilism in England. a) Acquisition of colonies.
          The Tudor monarchy helped the merchants to acquire colonies. Colonies were important in the whole system of mercantilism because they provided markets and raw materials such as gold and silver which were needed by the merchants.
          1. Chartered trading companies.
          The Tudor monarchy charted trading companies had given them exclusive rights to trade all over the world. The most importance of these companies were the royal Africa company charted in 1588 in order to organize slave trade and east India company chartered in 1600 for trading with India and the far east including china and Japan.
          1. Set up navigation acts.
          The Tudor monarchy set up navigational acts of the 17th C which were introduced to monopolize the rights to transport goods into and from the colonies as well as the profits obtained from transportation between the mother land and the colony.
          1. Ensured constant supply of wool.
          The Tudor monarchy assured the merchants constant supply of wool by stopping the export of wool. Wool was important as a raw material in the textile industries. The textile industries were very important during the early days of the industrial revolution in Britain.
          1. Promoted organization.
          The Tudor monarchy provided organization of merchant groups for the exploitation and settlement in the new world. By the 17th C, many Britons were investing overseas, these included members of parliament and merchants. f) Security.
          The Tudor monarchy assured the merchants protection on the high seas from pirates. Mercantilism was characterized with primitive accumulation of capital one of the methods used to acquire capital was piracy, thus the assurance of protection encouraged the merchants to engage in trade.
          1. Provided loans.
          The Tudor monarchy provided loans and grants to the merchants, the provisions of loans and grants encouraged the merchants to engage in mercantile activities thus leading to the development of mercantilism in Britain.
          1. Developed and consolidated maritime technology.
          The Tudor monarchy contributed to the development of mercantilism in Britain by developing and consolidating maritime technology. Maritime technology made it possible for the merchants to trade overseas with Africa and America thus the rise of mercantilism.
          1. Discarded feudal elements.
          The Tudor monarchy abandoned feudal elements and promoted capitalism, this led to the emergency of the merchant class. The merchant class conducted trade overseas which contributed to the rise of mercantilism.
          Sources of primitive accumulation of capital during mercantilism
          a) Long distance trade.
          The capitalists obtained capital from the long distance trade that was conducted among various continents such as Africa, America and Asia. This was the Trans Atlantic slave trade. European countries acquired capital by accumulating precious metals such as gold and silver which was based on unequal exchange. b) Crusades
          These wars were fought between the Muslims and the Christians from the 11th to 12th centuries. The Christians claimed that these were holly wars which aimed at the holly lands from the Arabs. It should be noted that the wars were accompanied with massive looting which formed the basis of primitive accumulation of capital.
          1. Confiscation of church property.
          The church in England controlled large estates of land but between 1535 and 1539 AD. King Henry VIII following the advice of his chief minister Thomas Cromwell decided to confiscate church property. The land was grabbed and sold to the capitalist; this capital was acquired by using primitive means.
          1. Feudal wars.
          The feudal wars were very common in Europe especially between 1337 and 1453 AD. There was the hundred year‟s war between the French and the British monarchies. These wars were characterized with plundering and looting which help the European powers to accumulate capital that contributed to the rise of capitalism. e) Enclosure system.
          This system involved evicting peasants and serfs from their land. The land was sold to the capitalist who organized it into compact forms and enclosed it. The enclosure system contributed to the improvement of the agriculture sector which led to the rise of the industrial revolution, but the eviction of the peasants and serfs was a primitive act.
          f) Protectionist policies.
          Mercantilism was associated with protectionism especially in England which was the major power during the mercantile period. The Tudor monarchy introduced navigational acts that denied other countries from trading freely with England and her colonies. This aimed at protecting the British interests.
          WHY BRITAIN SUCCEEDED IN MERCANTILE TRADE
          Britain was the most successful nation in Europe in mercantile trade especially during the second phase which took place between the 15th and 18th centuries. Britain was also the first country to industrialize because it was very active during mercantilism. There are many factors that aided Britain to dominate mercantilism in Europe or the world.
          1. Role of Tudor monarchy.
          The Tudor monarchy played a great role in the development of mercantilism in Britain and ensuring that the country became the most powerful during the mercantile period. The monarchy acquired colonies that provided raw materials and markets to the merchants and it also promoted political stability that encouraged domestic production.
          1. Development of maritime technology.
          Maritime technology first developed on a larger scale in Britain then it spread to other countries. Maritime technology facilitated inters–continental trade that greatly contributed to the development of mercantilism in Britain. Ever since the 14th C Britain has been enjoying an extra advantage over navy supremacy than other European nations and used this advantage to dominate mercantile trade.
          1. Increase in internal production.
          There are various changes that took place in the agricultural and industrial sectors in Britain. These changes boosted internal production that stimulated trade with other countries. Britain traded with north and South America, Asia and Africa thus she was able to dominate other countries in mercantile activities.
          1. Acquisition of colonies.
          Britain had so many colonies in Africa, America and China. These colonies guaranteed the merchants sources of raw material and markets thus leading to the development of mercantilism in Britain.
          1. Imposition of protective tariffs.
          The establishment of navigation acts of the 17th C provided moral and material support to the merchants by protecting them from competition. By this law, all goods exported to British colonies had to be carried by British ships and all goods from British colonies were supposed to be shipped first to Britain before exporting them to other countries. The navigation acts played a crucial role in helping Britain to dominate mercantilism.
          1. Enclosure system.
          Britain was the first country to implement the enclosure system in the 16th century. The enclosure system involved grouping all peasants and common land in the villages in two compact forms, this land was subjected to commercial production. The enclosure system led to increase in production which contributed to the development of mercantilism.
          1. Exploitation of other countries.
          Britain was able to exploit heavily the weak nations, Portugal depended heavily on the military support from Britain against her rivals such as Spain and in return Britain got economic gains. These activities contributed to the development of mercantilism in Britain.
          THE TRANS ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE
          This refers to the type of trade that involved three continents Africa, America and Europe. In this trading system, Africa was the source of cheap labor which was in the form slaves. America was the source of raw materials and Europe was the source of manufactured goods, hence the triangle. The main participants were Britain, France, Holland and Portugal. Origin
          There are various factors that contributed to the rise of the Trans Atlantic slave trade
          1. Discovery of the new world.
          The discovery of the new world that is America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 contributed to the rise of Trans Atlantic slave trade. The Europeans rushed to America and established plantations and mining centers which demanded for labor, this necessitated the importation of Africans thus the beginning of the Trans Atlantic slave trade.
          1. Discovery of maritime technology.
          The discovery of the art of making ships and compass direction played a fundamental role in the rise of the Trans Atlantic slave trade, this technology made it possible for Europeans to trade with various countries across the Atlantic Ocean.
          1. The inability of the indigenous people.
          At first the Europeans were using Native Americans, red Indians to provide cheap labor on the plantations and mining centers; but these later died in huge numbers due to plague. This called for the importation of African slaves which contributed to the rise of the
          Trans Atlantic slave trade.
          1. The establishment of plantations.
          After the discovery of the new world, many Europeans flocked to America; these included the British, French, Portuguese and the Dutch. Many of these immigrants established plantations that caused more demand for slave labor. The increased demand contributed to the development of Trans–Atlantic slave trade. e) Accessibility.
          The accessibility between the new world and the West African coast facilitated the rise of the Trans Atlantic slave trade. The distance from West Africa to the new world is very narrow thus it made it possible for the transportation of goods between the two regions.
          EFFECTS OF THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE IN AFRICA
          The Trans Atlantic slave trade was a disaster to Africa. It is one of the factors which contributed to under development in Africa.
          1. Economic effects

            1. Removal of African labor; The Trans Atlantic slave trade was associated with the uprooting of many Africans who were taken to provide cheap labor on European plantations in America. The ones who were taken were between the ages of 15 and 35 who made up the productive force in Africa.
            2. Stagnation of African technology The Trans Atlantic slave trade contributed to the stagnation of African technology. It led to the flooding of European manufactured goods which were exchanged for slaves. Due to these goods , the Africans found it easier to sell their fellow Africans in exchange for manufactured goods hence they neglected production which led to the stagnation of African technology.
            3. Decline of African agricultural production; There was decline in agricultural production due to the loss of labor. Those who were taken as slaves were the ones who were very active in farms, thus their removal led to shortage of labor consequently causing the decline in agricultural production.
            4. Decline of African traditional industries; It contributed to the decline of African traditional industries due to the flooding of European manufactured goods. Due to these goods Africans abandoned production and exchanged their fellow Africans with the Europeans goods. The manufactured goods from Europe also destroyed African traditional industries by killing the market for African local goods.
            5. Insecurity; The major item of trade during the Trans–Atlantic slave trade was slaves. The slaves were acquired through release of ambushing and raiding various villages, these activities contributed to insecurity which disrupted trade and agriculture.
          2. Social effects
            1. Depopulation; It led to depopulation because millions of Africans were uprooted and exported to America as cheap labor. It is believed that during the 400 years of slave trade, around 100,000,000 Africans were taken as slaves.
          ii.Famine; The Trans Atlantic slave trade contributed to famine in Africa. The trade was characterized with insecurity because of slave trading activities, the insecurity made it difficult for people to engage in agricultural production.
          1. Erosion of African culture; The Trans Atlantic slave trade was associated with an influx of foreigners especially Europeans. This led to a destruction of African traditional values because Africans were coping European culture.
          2. Break down families; There was break down of families because various members were taken as slaves.
          (c) Political effects
          i. Fall of states; The Trans Atlantic slave trade contributed to the collapse of some states in West Africa, these included Oyo and Benin. These states collapsed because of slave trading activities which led to famine and depopulation consequently leading their decline.
          CONTRIBUTION OF MERCANTILISM TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF
          CAPITALISM IN EUROPE
          Mercantilism had great impact in the development of industrial revolution and the eventual transformation of European countries into big powers. The European countries accumulated capital for around 300 years. It should be noted that mercantilism was a blessing to Europe, but a tragedy to Africa. The contribution of mercantile trade to the developing of European industrial capitalism included the following;
          1. Accumulation capital.
          The European countries acquired a lot of capital from mercantilism. The countries were able to accumulate a lot of capital throughout the 300 years of mercantilism through unequal exchange, the obtained precious metals such as gold, silver and diamond which they used to finance the industrial revolution.
          1. Source of cheap labour.
          Mercantilism was associated with slave trade, during this period millions of Africans were uprooted and exported to America, where they provided cheap labor in mines and plantations of sugarcane and coffee belonging to European absentee capitalists.
          1. Supply of raw materials.
          Mercantilism contributed to the rise of capitalism by supplying raw materials that were needed by European industries. Raw materials such as gold, tobacco, sugar cane and cotton were obtained from Africa and America. These raw materials played a great role in the rise of industrial revolution.
          1. Development of science and technology.
          Mercantilism was associated with maritime technology that led to the development of science and technology. The ships enabled the transportation of large quantities of raw materials and manufactured goods over long distances. This played a great role in the rise of industrial revolution.
          1. Development of towns and cities.
          Mercantilism contributed to the development of towns and cities in Europe. These towns developed due to the booming trade that existed in that period. The towns include the following; Manchester, Liverpool, Nantes and Bordeaux. These towns attracted the establishment of industries which contributed to the rise of capitalism.
          1. Development of financial institutions.
          Mercantilism contributed to the development of financial institutions. Part of the money which was used to establish Barclays bank in England was obtained from slave trade during mercantilism. This financial institution played a great role in the rise of capitalism by providing loans and credit to people who wanted to invest.
          1. Development of agricultural sector.
          Mercantilism was associated with new farming methods and agricultural sector. The wealth accumulated from mercantilism was invested in agricultural sector thus contributing to the agrarian revolution. The agrarian revolution played a leading in the development of capitalism.
          1. Rise of aristocratic class.
          The most successful merchants during mercantilism became rulers by staging political revolution such as the English revolution of the 1640 and the French revolution of 1789 that over threw despotic regimes. The new governments that were controlled by merchants abolished feudalism and introduced capitalist relation of production.
          1. Minting of coin money.
          The golden silver that was obtained in mercantilism was used to mint coin money. This money formed the basis of capital accumulation that later financed industrial revolution in Europe.
          FACTORS FOR THE WIDENING GAP OF DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE FROM THE 15THC
          Development is many sided process from low level to high level of development in all aspects of life (politically, economically and socially).
          Is a progressive change from low level to high level or is a sudden/gradual change from low level to high level.
          Many Historians like Walter Rodney argue that from the 15thc onward African continent was left behind in all aspects of life due to the following reasons.
          During mercantilism
          Mercantilism is an economic policy conducted through overseas trade where by gold and silver (precious metals) were accumulated and used as coins by European coins by European merchants through primitive accumulation of capital like piracy, kidnapping, looting etc. The trade was conducted between Africa, Europe and America.
          1. Slave trade.
          As a process of buying and selling of human beings as commodities led to the widening gap between Africa and Europe. Several slave trade activities were conducted in Africa such as The Trans-Atlantic slave trade, East African slave trade. Because of slave trade Africans who were productive in the economy were taken to offer their labour in the mines and plantation established by European capitalists in countries such as USA, Canada,Brazil etc. The mines and plantations were producing raw materials to feed European industries. Slave trade removed labour force from Africa which was highly needed if Africa was to achieve development in all aspects hence widening a gap between Africa and Europe.
          1. Unequal exchange.
          Unequal exchange during mercantilism was one among the factors for the widening gap. there was inequality of exchange that existed between Africa and Europe from the 15thC onwards which led to widen gap For Example The Africans supplied valuable goods such as gold, ivory, silver, diamond, etc. to Europeans while Europeans supplied commodities with low value mostly they supplied luxurious and consumable goods such as alcohol, out dated guns, looking mirrors, ornaments and clothes which had no or less potential to the socio-economic development of Africa.
          1. Primitive accumulation of capital.
          During mercantilism European merchants with the help of their nations could travel to Africa and other continents where they accumulated wealth through primitive ways of accumulating wealth such as looting, crusade, plundering, and piracy.etc. Sometimes they conquered the weak states found in Africa and accumulated wealth, It should be remembered that the wealth accumulated was used to develop industries and infrastructures in Europe hence widen the gap.
          1. The European Marine technology.
          During the 15thC during the mercantilism; the marine technology was more advanced in Europe. Because of newly invented technology it led to widening of the gap. Example the introduction of geographical maps, compass direction and sea going vessel enabled the European merchants to travel across the oceans example Vasco Dagama who travelled to different parts of the world, Christopher Columbus who discovered the new world. The European traders travelled to different parts of the world searching for markets, raw materials and areas for investment. This enabled them to accumulate a lot of capital that they used to invest in their countries‟ development.
          1. Emergence of European merchant kings.
          Emergence of European merchant kings who were interested in trade ventures to a large extent led the widening of gap between Africa and Europe; because European merchants could travel widely in different parts of the world and accumulate wealth and capital and later the capital accumulated by the European merchant kings was invested in economic sectors. Merchant kings were such as King Henry the navigator of Portugal, The Tudor Monarchy in England especially King Henry VII and many others .These European merchant were vigorously supported by their government and hence the accumulated a lot of wealth for European development hence resulted to widen gap between Europe and Africa.
          During colonialism
          Colonialism is a situation where by a strong nations dominate the weak nations economically, socially and politically which was established in Africa from the second half of 19thC led to the underdevelopment of African countries as follows:-
          1. Stagnation and destruction of African technology.
          Africans who were skilled, knowledgeable, and trained were taken to the plantations and mines to work as cheap labors also colonialists introduced laws that destroyed African technology such as chopping, imposing and brutal punishment to people who got involved in practicing African technology. Example in Congo people who were making clothes and melting iron were chopped off their hands .All this was done to kill African technology.
          1. Exploitation of African resources.
          During colonialist Europeans got Africa as place where they could get areas for market, labor, raw materials,areas for investment of their surplus capital and areas for settling their excess population hence Europeans got a lot of wealth and capital from African continent for their own development of Africa.
          1. Introduction of legitimate trade in Africa.
          After the abolition of slave trade there was introduction of legitimate trade which was also unequal trade. It involved exchange of natural products (agricultural and mineral Conference (1884-1885).With legitimate trade intensive exploitation of African resources took place. Africans supplied raw materials such as rubber, cocoa, groundnuts palm oil etc. and minerals to the Europeans such as silver, gold, copper etc. This enabled Europeans to accumulate wealth and made Africa a place for satisfying European capitalist demands.
          NEO COLONIALISM
          Neo colonialism is the process whereby a country is independent politically but economically still dominated by the strong nations; sometimes neo colonialism is known as flag independence simply because these nations which are weak economically have no power to decide concerning their own development.
          1. African leaders acting as puppet leaders for their former colonial masters.
          The Fact that some African leaders after independence are still cooperating with the Europeans to exploit African resources and protect the interests of Europeans. Example the late Mobutu Seseseko in former Zaire now DRC; corrupted resources for France and for himself, Fodey Senko of sierra Leone, Charles Taylor of Liberia.
          Also Neo Colonialism is also used by the economically developed countries such as USA which has world‟s financial institutions (like International Monetary Fund, World Bank) to devaluate local currencies in Africa and giving hard conditions to African countries so that they can ensure that Africa remains underdeveloped and dependent.
          1. Globalization and Privatization.
          This also led to underdevelopment of African continent and development of European continent. Globalization is the process which increases interconnection of the people all over the world. Through globalization Africa has become a market for European manufactured goods that have low quality and also it has resulted to the deterioration of African culture.
          IMPACTS OF WIDENING GAP OF DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE
          1. It led to introduction of an increased slave trade in Africa.
          2. Led to increase and expansion of unequal exchange between Africa and Europe.
          3. It has led to destruction of African technology and local industries.
          4. Led to destruction of African culture and introduction of European culture.
          5. Led to introduction of legitimate trade after the abolition of slave trade in which Africans continued to be affected.
          6. It led to introduction of colonialism in Africa.
          7. African continent is still a market of European manufactured goods, and area to invest capital and a dumping place for European outdated products and goods of low quality.
          8.Through neo – colonialism African continent is still dominated by big powers in all aspects of life by using ways such as militarism where by European former colonial masters tend to come to Africa for peace keeping and training African soldiers, through(Structural Adjustment Program(SAP)).

          THE PEOPLE OF AFRICAN ORIGIN IN THE NEW

          WORLD

          The new world in this context refers to the United States of America and the Caribbean islands were most of the people of African origin were found.
          The people of African origin in the new world were a product of Trans Atlantic slave trade, this trade led to the exportation of many Africans in the form of slaves to America to provide cheap labor on plantations and mines.
          The origin or genesis of the African people in the new world/slavery
          1. Mercantilism
          This was an economic system which involved conducting trade overseas searching for gold and silver. Mercantilism led to the rise of the Trans – Atlantic slave trade which was a trading activity which involved Africa, Europe and America. During this trade millions of Africans were shipped to America to provide cheap labor on plantations.
          1. Booming capitalist agriculture.
          During mercantilism European capitalists established different plantations of coffee, sugarcane, cotton and tobacco which called for massive supply of cheap labor, thus the supply of white labor was getting difficult compared to the expanding needs of the plantations, therefore called for importation of slaves from Africa.
          1. Industrial revolution in Europe.
          Due to the industrial revolution, there was a need to expand home markets thus the merchants and the ruling class in Europe were afraid of under population; this prompted the campaign against the use of white labor. The crisis called for massive importation of slaves from Africa to provide cheap labor on plantations.
          1. Africans slaves were cheap.
          It‟s on record that money paid to a white labor for ten years could procure an African slave for life. In addition a white worker was expected to acquire land at the end of the contract while an African slave was prevented by law from owning land. This condition necessitated the use of African labor thus the existence of people of African origin in the new world.
          1. Discovery of maritime technology.
          This acted as a pushing factor for Africans to be taken as slaves. Maritime technology eased transportation and guided the merchants to locate Africa. Thus be in possession to transport people of African origin to the new world.
          1. Inability of the indigenous people.
          Initially the Europeans were using Native Americans and red Indians to provide cheap labor on the plantations and mining centers but these later died in huge numbers due to plague. This called for an importation of African slaves which contributed to the existence of people of African origin in the new world.
          1. Discovery of the new world.
          The discovery of the new world by Christopher Columbus in 1492 contributed to the existence of people of African origin in the new world. The discovery led to the establishment of plantations and mining centers that demanded for cheap labor which called for importation of African slaves.
          PROBLEMS FACED BY THE PEOPLE OF AFRICAN ORIGIN IN THE NEW WORLD
          The people of African origin faced various problems which were caused by the development of capitalism. The European maintained certain conditions to ensure the survival of capitalism at the expense of the people of African origin. These problems are classified into political, economical and social aspects.
          POLITICAL PROBLEMS
          • Denied the right to vote.
          The people of African origin were denied the right to vote, various measures were put that made difficult for the black people to vote. The qualifications to vote included one should have attained a certain level of income and had a grandfather who was eligible to vote.
          • Denied equal representation.
          People of African origin were denied equal representation in
          the government. To make matters worse; they were even denied the right to run for political office hence they had no representatives in the government.
          • Denied the right to make decisions.
          People of African origin were denied the right to make decisions in the new world they lost all their rights as human beings hence they could not even make decisions regarding their own lives.
          ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
          • Denied the right to own land.
          People of African origin were denied the right to own land, they were forbidden by law to own land or any other property. This rendered them to be only domestic servants in the new world.
          • Poor working conditions.
          People of African origin were exposed to poor working conditions on the plantations owned by the whites. They signed contracts with planters were they agreed to offer labor on conditions similar to those of slavery. On the plantations, people of African origin were more often punished by the planters and were paid low wages and in some cases they were not paid at all.
          SOCIAL PROBLEMS
          • Racial discrimination
          The people of African origin were subjected to racial discrimination in all aspects of life. Laws were established which restricted people of African origin to live in separate and inferior sections of hospitals, cemeteries and toilet facilities.
          • Education
          The people of African origin faced different problems in education system. There was segregation in the education system whereby black people were denied admission in secondary schools, colleges and universities because of their race.
          • Denied the right to marry.
          Black people were denied the right to marry and be married. The capitalist believed that marriage would hinder the exploitation of African labor since it would become expensive to maintain the black people and their families. Laws were also established that prohibited relations between a black and a white man.
          Due to the problems; the people of African origin began to wage struggles for equality, economic power and civil rights. The development of class consciousness among the people of African origin was caused by numerous factors that contributed to the rise of black American nationalism.
          BLACK AMERICAN NATIONALISM
          The origin of black American nationalism was the exploitation and oppression to which the black people were subjected. This situation forced the black people to identify themselves as the group apart.
          Black American nationalism manifested itself in different forms such as back to African movement, pan African movement and the civil rights movement.
          OBJECTIVES OF A BACK TO AFRICA MOVEMENT
          1. Liberate people of African origin.
          The movement wanted the people of African origin to be free from exploitation and oppression by shipping them back to Africa. The supporters of this movement argued that the people of African origin cannot attain economic and political freedom in the USA thus the solution was to go back to Africa.
          1. Formation of a strong African state.
          The movement aimed at forming the strong African state which would restore, respect and freedom to the people of African origin, the supporters of the movement claimed that the formation of a strong African state will lead to the elevation of African race.
          1. Empower the people of African origin.
          The movement aimed at empowering the black people economically by establishing economic ventures and creating employment for the millions of people of African origin that were living in poverty.
          1. Raising nationalism in Africa.
          The people of African origin (back to Africa movement) aimed at raising nationalism in Africa. It wanted to unite all the black people in both the new world and Africa to fight against oppression, exploitation and colonialism.
          1. Regain fundamental rights.
          The movement also aimed at bringing unity and solidarity among the people of African origin. The black people had been denied the right to education, right to freedom of expression and the right to marry and own property.
          1. Cultivate a sense of unity.
          The movement also aimed at bringing unity and solidarity among the people of African origin. Unity was an important ingredient in the struggle to regain the fundamental rights of the people of African origin.
          Achievements of the back to Africa movement
          1. Formation of the Universal Negros Improvement Association (UNIA).
          The UNIA aimed at calling all people of African origin to establish universal nationhood. The association wanted to emancipate people of African origin from exploitation and oppression.
          1. Launched a shipping agency.
          The back to Africa movement undertook intensive back to Africa campaign and launched a shipping agency called “black star shipping line” which shifted the emancipated slaves back to Africa for example Liberia and sierra Leone.
          1. Plan to form a strong African state.
          The movement advocated for the need to form a strong African state which would give the people of African origin the freedom from exploitation and oppression, this centered on the formation of African unity which laid the foundation of the organization of African unity.
          1. Formation of the African republic.
          The back to Africa movement established the African republic whereby it opened large scale capitalist programs such as hotels and restaurants. These investments provided employment opportunities to the black people who had been denied employment.
          1. Removal of inferiority complex of the Africans.
          The movement promoted awareness and consciousness among the African race and removed the inferior complex which most Africans had. Through various publications and civil rallies many people of African origin got sensitized and begun to identify their position and their role to play in the dominant white society. f) Unity
          The back to Africa movement promoted black solidarity among the black people in the new world and in Africa. Unity was very crucial to the people of African origin were to gain their fundamental right.
          Hindrances to the back to Africa movement
          There were so many hindrances that faced the back to Africa movement, these included the following
          1. Disunity
          There were some people of African origin who preferred to remain in America because they were not so certain to which part of Africa the movement intended to take them. This complicated the interests of the movement.
          1. A campaign of terror
          A campaign of terror was unleashed against the members of the universal Negro improvement association all over the state. Many of the members were thrown out of their jobs and the key organizers were killed. This was a serious setback to the cause of the movement.
          1. Role of Britain and the USA.
          Countries such as Britain and the USA worked very hard to frustrate Marcus Garvey, one of the leaders of the back to Africa movement. In 1923 the government of Liberia invited the members of universal Negros improvement association to set up an African base in Liberia but these two countries threatened to attack Liberia indeed when a team of technical experts arrived in Liberia in 1824, they were arrested and deported to the USA.
          1. Opposition from white American capita
            lists.
          The UNIA was operating in the United States along capitalist lines hence it created stiff competition with the white American capitalists who were determined to assure its failure.
          1. Deportation of Marcus Garvey.
          The government of USA contributed to the failure of the back to Africa by arresting Marcus Garvey and sentenced him to five years imprisonment, he was later pardoned but deported to Jamaica in 1927 hence ending all hopes of reviving the movement hence ending all hopes of reviving the movement.
          1. Mass illiteracy.
          The mass illiteracy of the people of African origin was the biggest challenge that faced the back to Africa movement, almost 90% of the black people were illiterate. Thus they were vulnerable to exploitation. Illiteracy made the people of African origin an aware about their political, social and economic rights.
          PANAFRICANISM OR THE PAN AFRICAN MOVEMENT/black solidarity
          Pan Africanism refers to the desire for African unity that tries to cultivate the spirit of brotherhood among the black people in the new world.
          Pan Africanism originated in America and the Caribbean islands in the early 20th century.
          The movement was formed by the black people initially to stop slave trade.
          Pan Africanism was founded by Bladen and later on it was actuated William Sylvester who convened the first pan Africanist conference, these were few representatives from Africa but the majority came from America.
          Aims of pan Africanism
          • The movement also aimed at bringing unity and solidarity among the people of African origin. Unity was an important ingredient in the struggle to regain the fundamental rights of the black people.
          • The movement aimed at fighting against colonialism in Africa and ensures that Africans are given their self rule. The Africans were subjected to colonial rule for a long period where they were exposed to all sorts of exploitation and oppression.
          • Rise consciousness of the black people towards elimination of their inferiority complex which would restore respect and freedom to black people. The supporters of the movement claimed that the formation of a strong state will lead to the elevation of the African race.
          • The movement wanted to liberate Africans from slave trade and slavery. Under slavery the people of African origin were subjected to all evils. They were denied the right to education, right to freedom of expression, right to marry and the right to own property.
          • The movement also wanted to regain the fundamental rights of the people of African origin. They were denied right to education, right to freedom of expression, right to marry and own property.
          • Raise consciousness of the black people towards formation of the united states of Africa which would have restore respects and freedom to the black people. The supporters of the movement claimed that the formation of a strong African state will lead the elevation of the African race.
          • The movement aimed at empowering the black people economically by establishing economic ventures and creating employment for the millions of people of African origin that were living in poverty.
          CONTRIBUTION OF PANAFRICANISM TO THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
          • The pan Africanist movement united all Africans from all works of life to oppose colonialism. The common desire for independence was a unifying factor that terminated tribal interest, by uniting all Africans it became easy to oppose colonial rule.
          • The movement provided a forum or a platform where Africans could discuss the grievance caused by colonialism in all the congresses of the movement, the people of African origin discussed about implementing the spirit of oneness among all the black people all over the world.
          • The movement awakened the interests of the Africans to fight for independence. During the conferences of the pan African movement, members discussed a wide range of issues such as racial discrimination, unfair taxation policies and land alienation which they were facing under colonial rule.
          • The pan African movement played a big role in the rise of African nationalism because it stressed that; the fight for political independence by the Africans was a necessary step towards complete economic and social emancipation.
          • The pan African congress chose total liberation in their struggle for independence from Manchester; the activities of the movement were shifted to Africa following the independence of Ghana in 1957. The capital city of Ghana, Accra became the head quarters of pan Africanism where Kwame Nkrumah spear headed the independence of many African countries.
          • The movement represented the African continent in the international conferences especially in the United Nations wanted to ensure that all countries attain independence through the peaceful means.
          THE DEVELOPMENT OF PAN-AFRICANISM
          The development of pan Africanism took place through summoning or holding various conferences in various countries of Europe. These conferences aimed at uniting people of African origin all over the world.
          These conferences included the following;
          • The pan African congress that took place in London in 1900.
          This was the first conference which took place in London. The meeting was summoned by Henry Sylvester Williams from the West Indies. It was at this conference that Doctor Du Bois was introduced and he came to dominate the movement for almost half of the century. The objects of the congress included the following;
            • To provide a forum for people of African origin to protest against European exploitation and oppression.
            • To bring all people of African origin into closer relationship, this was so crucial in the struggle for their fundamental rights.
            • To appeal to the people to end the colonization and exploitation of the African people.
          This conference was able to lay the foundation for future solidarity of all people of African origin and it planted the spirit of oneness of Africa all over the world.
          • The Paris conference of 1919.
          This was the second pan African movement which was held in Paris. This conference was chaired by Du Bois. This conference took place at a time when the Paris Peace Conference is taking place. This was the conference which was signed after the First World War. In this conference the following points were made
            • The members recommended that an international law should be formed to protect the Africans.
            • The Africans should be guaranteed the right to education.
            • The conference also supported the abolition of slave trade and capital punishment.
          • The London conference of 1921.
          This was the third conference that was held in three sessions, that is in London, Brussels and Paris. The conference emphasized the need to form political parties and the need for international harmony. In 1944, the students‟ crew and politicians, led by George Pardmore, Wallace Jackson and Jomo Kenyatta formed a pan African federation.
          • The
            fourth pan African congress.
          The fourth congress was held in London and Lisbon in 1923. The members in this congress maintained that the Africans should have a right to self government.
          • The fifth pan African congress.
          This congress took place in New York in 1927; this was the last pan African congress which was directly linked to Dr. Bois and George Pardmore. There were conflicts which emerged between Marcus Garvey and Dr Bois. Marcus Garvey one of the founders of back to Africa movement wanted to deport all people of African origin back to Africa while Dr. Du Bois preferred to fight from exile.
          • The sixth pan African congress.
          The pan African federation convened a radical congress in 1945 in Manchester. This was a Manchester conference of 1945. This conference was inspired by President Woodrow Wilson of the United States who declared the principle of self determination.
          This was the conference that demanded complete independence for the Africans. After the conference the intellectuals went back to Africa to mobilize the people for independence instead of remaining in Europe.
          The conference was attended by a number of nationalist leaders from Africa such as Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, Nnandi Azikiwe, Peter Abrahams and Wallace Jackson. The members at this conference adopted the following resolutions
            • The members demanded complete independence from colonial rule, they argued that “We demand black African autonomy independence, so far and no further than it is possible in this one world for
              groups of people to rule themselves”.
            • They also demanded universal suffrage and condemned colonialism
          NOTE: The African nationalists such as kwame Nkrumah, kamuzu Banda and Nnandi Azikiwe studied in the United States of America thus they had been enlightened about them to take an active role in the pan African movement.
          THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENTS IN THE USA
          The civil rights movements was an ideological and political movement of people of African origin in America that demanded for total democracy which allow the citizens of America both black and white to participate fully in the economic, political and social affairs of the country.
          The movement was advocating for equal rights and fair treatments to all people irrespective of their races. The main architects of this movement were Martin Luther King and Malcolm X.
          The objectives of the civil rights movements
          • To end all kinds of discrimination.
          The main objective of the movement was to end all kinds of discrimination and segregation of people of African origin in America. The people of African origin had been subjected to political, social and economic forms of discrimination and segregation.
          • Create an ideal American society.
          Create an ideal American society by enforcing the implementation of the American constitution to grant people of African origin the same human rights as accorded to the white people.
          • Equal employment opportunities.
          To enforce the government to grant equal employment opportunities to people of African origin were denied employment especially on federal projects and departments.
          • Right to vote.
          To enforce the government to grant people of African origin the right to vote and to be voted for. This was one of the major objectives of the civil rights movement because the people of African origin had been segregated from affairs of their country.
          • Developing unity and solidarity.
          The movement aimed at developing unity and solidarity of all the people of African origin in America. The movement wanted to sensitize people of African origin to identify their position in the society and their vision and direction.
          • Basic needs
          The movement also wanted to ensure that the people of African origin are given their basic needs. They summarized their demands in the final point, “we need land, bread, housing and education” the blank panther party suggested that if businesses and the government did not provide for full employment, the community should take over the means of production.
          • Stamp out slavery.
          The movement wanted to stamp out slavery and improve the working conditions of people of African origin. After the civil war, slavery was abolished but people of African origin were still working in conditions that were not different from those of slavery.
          Achievements of the civil rights movements
          The civil rights movement registered great success in fighting for the rights of black people in the United States of America. It marked a turning point in the economic, political and social well being of the black people.
          • The people of African origin or black people were given the right to vote and to be voted for political positions in the United States. For example they should be governors of the state, mayors of cities, congress representatives, ambassadors and military commanders and presidents.
          • The USA government recognized that positive actions were needed to improve the opportunities of the black people in the United States. The government decided that public and private institutions that employed black people should be considered in terms of tax concession.

          The black people are also entitled to welfare benefits as much as the whites. These benefits included unemployment benefits, housing subsidies and state scholarships.




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          20 Comments

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            Tukamuhebwa Elias, March 7, 2026 @ 8:17 amReply

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            Angel Gervas, April 22, 2024 @ 7:09 pmReply

            Naomba history topic 7

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            Kaweesi, March 12, 2024 @ 5:01 amReply

            Nice

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              David Mbingo, April 15, 2024 @ 4:15 pmReply

              Wow 😲 so nice

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            Jaffary Omary, January 8, 2024 @ 5:31 pmReply

            Provide a link to download full notes

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            Emmanuel, October 28, 2023 @ 9:42 pmReply

            Shukulani

          • 46292eccf978823161c243c3ac840e76

            Daniel Andrea, October 24, 2023 @ 8:02 pmReply

            Now

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            Salick Kalinga, February 16, 2023 @ 1:45 amReply

            Nice app

            • 45311c2dd312f116df2956873fc9b134

              Efora D, January 6, 2025 @ 5:06 pmReply

              Can I get other achievements? If yes where are they?

              • Efdc080eda9a2329fc0b8068be620611

                Gasper, May 26, 2025 @ 4:33 pmReply

                Can I have more notes

          • 41b6391fb535613308c9f4220700bc94

            Salick, February 16, 2023 @ 1:44 amReply

            History form 5

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