AGRICULTURE O LEVEL(FORM TWO) NOTES – LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

THEME 3.0: LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

POULTRY FARMING

Poultry farming involves raising various types of domestic birds commercially for meat, eggs, and feather production. The most common and widely raised poultry birds are chickens.

Approximately 5 billion chickens are raised annually as a source of food, both meat and eggs. Chickens raised for eggs are called layer chickens, while those raised for meat production are called broiler chickens. The UK and USA consume more chicken meat and eggs than other countries. On average, the UK alone consumes over 29 million chicken eggs daily. Commercial poultry farming is essential to meet the demand for animal nutrition and is highly profitable. It is one of the traditional business ventures. Below are the advantages of poultry farming and the steps for running this business.

Benefits of Poultry Farming

Poultry farming offers numerous benefits, making it a preferred investment for many farmers. People generally establish poultry farms to produce eggs, meat, and generate high revenue. Billions of chickens are raised worldwide as a good source of food from their eggs and meat. The main benefits include:

• Low initial capital requirement; basic capital is sufficient, and most poultry birds are affordable.
• Requires little space unless done commercially; birds can be raised in backyards with coops or cages.
• High return on investment within a short period; broiler chickens mature quickly and generate profit fast.
• Low maintenance of poultry farm structures; proper hygiene and care minimize diseases. Some birds like quails and turkeys have fewer diseases.
• Usually no license needed as poultry birds are domestic; if required, obtaining a license is easy.
• Provides fresh and nutritious food with huge global demand; poultry products are affordable for most people.
• Easy marketing due to established markets worldwide.
• Creates income and employment opportunities, especially for unemployed youth, women, and students.
• Banks often approve loans for poultry business ventures.
• Many more benefits; starting poultry farming allows gradual learning.

Various Methods of Poultry Farming

The World Watch Institute reports that about 74% of total poultry meat and 68% of total poultry eggs come from intensive poultry farming. Free-range farming is an alternative method used for large numbers of birds with high stocking density. Intensive poultry farming is highly efficient, saving land, feed, labor, and other resources while increasing production. The environment is fully controlled, ensuring continuous production year-round. However, some criticize intensive farming for health risks, animal abuse, and environmental harm. Free-range farming requires more space but yields similar production. Both methods require the use of nationally approved medications like antibiotics to keep birds disease-free.

POULTRY BREEDS (EXOTIC BREEDS)

Exotic breeds are those brought from other countries. There are two main groups:

i) Pure Breeds

Pure breeds are pure for one breed and are divided into:

a) Heavy Breeds

These have heavy body weight and include:

• Rhode Island Red – Origin: America
  Characteristics: Brownish used feathers, some have black wings and tail, females are good layers.
• Black Australorp – Origin: Australia
  Characteristics: Males have bright red feathers around the neck, tail, and wings; females are fairly good layers.
• Orpington – Origin: England
  Characteristics: Birds have black feathers with white bars, quite heavy in weight, some varieties are black.
• Barred Plymouth Rock – Origin: America
  Characteristics: Birds have black feathers with white bars, long bodies, hardy, females do not easily stop laying.

b) Light Breeds

These have average light body weight and are mostly suitable for egg production. They include:

• Leghorns – Origin: Mediterranean countries
  Varieties: White leghorn, Black leghorn, Brown leghorn.
• Other light breeds: Minorca, Andalusia, Ancona.

ii) Hybrids

Hybrids result from crossing two or more poultry breeds. Some are suitable for egg production, others for meat (broilers). Broilers grow fast, while hybrid layers produce more eggs than their parents. Examples include Shavers, Hornber, Haco, and Sterlin.

POULTRY MANAGEMENT

Poultry management involves the following operations:

• Egg incubation
• Rearing of chicks
• Feeding of chicks
• Administration of drugs
• Prevention of vices
• Disease and parasite control

I. INCUBATION OF EGGS

Incubation is the treatment of fertile eggs to develop into chicks by subjecting them to suitable temperature, humidity, and ventilation.

• Temperature: 30°C – 35°C
• Humidity: 60%–70%

The time from fertilization to hatching is the incubation period.

• Chicken: 21 days
• Ducks: 28 days
• Turkeys: 28 days
• Goose: 30 days

Incubation can be natural or artificial.

A) Natural Incubation

Terminologies:

• Brooding: Supplying heat naturally or artificially to facilitate hatching.
• Broody hen: A hen that sits on fertilized eggs to supply heat.

Natural incubation is done by allowing a broody hen to sit on the eggs until they hatch, usually for 21 days. The hen turns the eggs to prevent the embryo from settling to one side and should be supplied with water, feed, and good shelter. The capacity of a brooding hen is 10–15 eggs.

Best practices:

• Prepare the broody hen by dusting with insecticide powder to remove lice and parasites.
• Prepare a nesting box (40cm x 35cm x 35cm) with soft material like maize husk or wood shavings.
• Place 10–15 eggs in the box and allow the hen to sit, noting the dates.
• Provide drinking water and feed containers.
• After 21 days, check for hatched eggs.

B) Artificial Incubation

Eggs are placed in special equipment called an incubator.

Types of incubators

• Small incubators
• Flat type
• Still air
• Table incubators
• Large incubators
• Cabinet incubators
• Walk-in incubators

Small incubators hold 50–300 eggs; large incubators hold thousands and are heated by electricity.

Procedure

• Collect medium-sized fertilized eggs (56–63g) with thick shells.
• Test eggs for cracks or defects using candling.
• Clean and disinfect the incubator 7 days before use.
• Switch on the heat source 3 days before incubation.
• Place water in the water pan and eggs in the tray with the large end facing upwards.
• Maintain temperature at 37°C–39°C and humidity at 60%.
• Turn eggs 3–5 times daily for the first 18 days to distribute heat evenly.
• Repeat candling on days 4–7 and day 14.
• On day 15, move eggs to the hatching compartment, raise humidity to 70%, and lower temperature to 36°C–37°C.
• Allow eggs to stay until they hatch.

Precautions

• Place the incubator in a well-ventilated area.
• Avoid direct sunlight on the incubator.
• Clean and disinfect the incubator after every hatch.
• Operate the incubator 3 days before setting eggs to ensure it works.
• Do not remove chicks from the incubator on the first day after hatching.
• Keep the hatchery and incubator clean.
• Wear protective clothing and wash regularly.
• Place a foot bath with disinfectant at the entrance to prevent disease transmission.

Egg Testing by Candling

Candling is done using a small box with a hole on top and a lamp inside. The egg is placed in the hole and illuminated for observation. Fertile eggs show a round small disc inside the yolk and a dark yolk color. A dark spot near the middle indicates fertility.

Importance

Candling identifies defective eggs to remove from incubation, including:

• Thin-shelled eggs
• Cracked eggs
• Defects in the yolk

FORMS OF POULTRY PRODUCTION IN TANZANIA

There are three forms of poultry keeping in Tanzania:

1. Multipurpose poultry production
2. Commercial meat production
3. Commercial egg production

I. Multipurpose poultry production

This usually involves keeping local poultry breeds on a small scale for both egg and meat production.

II. Commercial meat production

Broilers are chickens kept for meat production. Features include:

• High mature weight
• Good feed conversion efficiency (e.g., Rhode Island Red)

III. Commercial egg production

Pullets kept for egg production are called layers. Good layers should:

• Lay up to 200 eggs during the laying period
• Efficiently convert feed into eggs (e.g., light breeds)

SYSTEMS OF POULTRY REARING

Poultry rearing refers to the care and management of poultry birds. The three main systems are:

1. Free range
2. Semi-intensive
3. Intensive

Intensive systems require higher investment; if capital is limited, semi-intensive or free-range systems are preferred.

Purpose of keeping poultry

• System choice depends on whether birds are layers, broilers, or dual-purpose.
• Most layers and broilers are kept intensively; dual-purpose birds are often free-range.

Number of birds to keep

• Few birds suit free-range; many birds require intensive systems.
• Space availability influences system choice.

Environmental factors

• Consider weather, presence of predators, and thieves.
• Use intensive systems if protection is needed.

(i) FREE RANGE SYSTEM (EXTENSIVE SYSTEM)

Birds are locked in at night and allowed to forage freely during the day. Suitable for hardy local breeds that can withstand adverse weather and find their own food.

Advantages:

• No feed cost as birds find their own food.
• Birds get a balanced diet from varied foods.
• Low initial cost for housing.
• Low incidence of vices like egg eating and cannibalism.
• Eggs and meat are palatable and nutritious.
• Birds get exercise due to free movement.

Disadvantages:

• Requires a lot of space.
• Birds may damage crops while foraging.
• Low security; birds vulnerable to predators, thieves, and accidents.
• Egg collection is difficult; eggs may be laid in awkward places.
• Not suitable for hybrid broilers and layers.
• Birds exposed to adverse weather.
• High risk of disease spread.

iii) SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM

Birds have housing and an enclosed run. They sleep in the house at night and roam the run during the day.

Types:

House and run system: Birds have small houses with runs, feeders, waterers, perches, and laying boxes. Birds roam freely during the day and are enclosed at night.

Fold unit system: Similar to house and run but housing is mobile (folds/arks) with wire netting. A 7m x 3m x 3m fold unit houses 20–30 birds.

Advantages:

• Movement of fold units and alternating runs ease parasite and disease control.
• Simple and cheap poultry houses.
• Manure is spread in runs.
• Easy egg collection if layers are kept.
• Easy to observe and attend birds.

Disadvantages:

• Fold units may break if materials are not durable.
• Not suitable for many birds; limited commercial use.
• Requires capital for fences, feed, and drugs.

iv) INTENSIVE SYSTEM

Many birds confined in a small building with supplied feed and water.

Types:

Deep litter system: Birds kept in a house with litter spread on the floor (timber shavings, sawdust, paddy husk, maize husks) to a depth of 10–15 cm. Litter should be changed with each new flock. Avoid damp litter to prevent disease.

Battery cages: Birds kept in cages of 1–2 birds with food and water troughs at the front. The cage floor is wire netting. Eggs slide to the front for easy collection. Suitable for egg production but not broilers. Clean metal trays under cages regularly. One row of cages is called a tier.

Advantages of battery cages:

• Large number of birds kept in small area.
• Egg recording is possible.
• Food and water remain clean.
• Egg eating and breaking minimized.
• Clean eggs collected.
• Vices like cannibalism reduced.
• Easy to identify diseased birds.
• Hens less likely to become broody.
• Birds not infected by intestinal worms and diseases.
• Easy provision of water and feed.

Disadvantages of battery cages:

• High cost of cages.
• Requires skilled operation.
• Suitable only for layers.

II. CHICK REARING (BROODING)

Period of growth when supplementary heat is provided to young chicks. Chicks need heat, light, fresh air, good food, and water.

Methods:

a) Natural: Using a brooding hen to look after chicks, providing warmth and protection.

Types of Brooders

• Hoover brooder
• Battery brooders
• Homemade brooder
• Heated tin brooder
• Kerosene lantern brooder
• Fireless brooder

Preparation of Brooder House and Brooding Area

• Clean and disinfect brooder house walls and floors; allow to dry.
• Prepare enclosure walls with cardboard 45–60 cm high.
• Spread litter uniformly in the enclosure.
• Install heat source (bulb or lamp) 40 cm above floor.
• Light heat source 12 hours before chick arrival; maintain 32–35°C.
• Provide fresh water in shallow containers.
• Provide chick mash containing 20–22% protein.
• Ensure good ventilation.

SEXING CHICKEN

Identifying the sex of chicks to separate males from females. Usually done by experts using special instruments. Mistakes can occur, so sexing is advised at 8 weeks when cockerels have larger combs and wattles.

REARING OF DAY-OLD CHICKS UP TO 8 WEEKS

1st WEEK

1st DAY

• Remove chicks from boxes and place in brooder.
• Provide plenty of water and chick mash; change feed several times daily.
• Maintain brooder temperature between 32–35°C.

2nd–3rd DAY

• Replace feed and water at least twice daily.
• Check brooder temperature and adjust as needed:

• Overcrowding causes low temperature.
• Being away from heat source causes high temperature.
• Even distribution ensures correct temperature.

• Stir litter daily; replace damp litter.
• Expand brooder area by joining cardboard walls.
• Observe temperatures and supply feed and water.
• Remove dead chicks.

2ND WEEK ONWARDS

• Reduce brooder temperature as chicks grow and feather.
• Lift heat source or lower lamp wick.
• Remove heat source at 4–5 weeks.
• Provide light at night for feeding and drinking.
• Keep litter dry; provide fresh feed and water.
• Add more feed and water troughs as chicks grow.
• Provide adequate floor and feeding space (1000 cm² per bird).

At 5 weeks, chicks are called growers and cared for differently. Broiler growers may stay in the same house; layer growers are shifted to another house.

Common Poultry Diseases

Respiratory Diseases

Many diseases affect the respiratory system of poultry, which includes chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, quail, pheasants, pigeons, guinea fowl, peafowl, ostrich, emus, and rhea. High poultry densities facilitate disease spread.

Fowl Pox

Synonyms: chicken pox (not human chicken pox), sore head, avian diphtheria, bird pox.

Species affected: Most poultry including chickens, turkeys, pheasants, quail, ducks, psittacosis, and ratites.

Clinical signs: Dry form causes wart-like lesions on unfeathered areas. Lesions heal in about 2 weeks. Scabs removed early cause bleeding. Symptoms include unthriftiness and retarded growth. Laying hens show transient egg production decline.

Transmission: Direct contact or mosquito bites. Virus enters through eyes, wounds, or respiratory tract. Mosquitoes remain infective for life and spread the virus.

Treatment: No treatment; vaccination can stop outbreaks.

Prevention: Control mosquitoes by spraying; vaccinate if disease is a problem.

Newcastle Disease

Synonyms: pneumoencephalitis.

Species affected: All birds; humans and mammals may get mild conjunctivitis.

Clinical signs: Sudden onset of hoarse chirps, watery nasal discharge, labored breathing, facial swelling, paralysis, trembling, twisting neck. Mortality 10–80%. Laying birds show decreased feed intake and egg production.

Transmission: Airborne, contaminated equipment, eggs, secretions, excreta, breath.

Treatment: No specific treatment; antibiotics for secondary infections; increase brooding temperature.

Prevention: Vaccination, sanitation, biosecurity.

Infectious Bronchitis

Synonyms: IB, bronchitis, cold.

Species affected: Chickens only.

Clinical signs: Decline in feed and water intake, watery eye and nostril discharge, labored breathing, egg production drop, rough eggshells.

Transmission: Air, feed bags, infected birds, rodents, egg transmission.

Treatment: No specific treatment; antibiotics for secondary infections; raise temperature; warm moist mash for chicks.

Prevention: Biosecurity and vaccination.

Avian Influenza

Synonyms: AI, flu, influenza, fowl plague.

Species affected: Most bird species.

Clinical signs: Mild form causes listlessness, respiratory distress, diarrhea, egg production drop. Highly pathogenic form causes facial swelling, blue comb, dehydration, respiratory distress, high mortality.

Transmission: Virus survives long; spread by contaminated materials, insects, rodents.

Treatment: No effective treatment; antibiotics for secondary infections; vaccines with permit.

Prevention: Vaccination, quarantine, rapid destruction of infected flocks.

Infectious Coryza

Synonyms: roup, cold, coryza.

Species affected: Chickens, pheasants, guinea fowl.

Clinical signs: Facial swelling, foul-smelling nasal and eye discharge, labored breathing, diarrhea, stunted growth.

Transmission: Direct bird contact, infected carriers, airborne droplets, contaminated feed and water.

Treatment: Water-soluble antibiotics (sulfadimethoxine preferred), erythromycin, tetracycline.

Prevention: Good management, vaccination on endemic farms.

Swollen Head Syndrome

Synonyms: Facial cellulitis, thick head, Dikkop, SHS.

Species affected: Chickens and turkeys; guinea fowl and pheasants susceptible; pigeons, ducks, geese resistant.

Clinical signs: Sneezing, reddening and swelling of eyes and face, disorientation, neck twisting, egg production drop.

Transmission: Direct contact or exposure to infectious material.

Treatment: No proven medication; antibiotics may help bacterial component.

Prevention: Commercial vaccine available.

Mycoplasma synoviae

Synonyms: MS, infectious synovitis, silent air sac.

Species affected: Chickens and turkeys.

Clinical signs: Lameness, lethargy, swollen joints, respiratory distress, greenish diarrhea.

Transmission: Vertical (egg) and direct contact; airborne particles.

Treatment: Antibiotics like tylosin, erythromycin, spectinomycin.

Prevention: Eradication; use MS-free breeders.

Mycoplasma meleagridis

Synonyms: MM, N strain, H strain.

Species affected: Turkeys, pigeons, quail, peafowl.

Clinical signs: High mortality in young poults, respiratory distress, stunting, crooked neck.

Transmission: Egg transmission increases with flock age; contaminated equipment and clothing.

Treatment: Antibiotics like tylosin, erythromycin.

Prevention: Keep MM-free breeders.

Aspergillosis

Synonyms: Brooder pneumonia, fungal pneumonia, aspergillus.

Species affected: All birds, animals, humans, plants.

Clinical signs: Respiratory distress, gasping, paralysis, mortality 5–50% in young birds.

Transmission: Fungus in litter, nest materials, feed, water.

Treatment: No cure; control by ventilation, fungistats, disinfectants.

Prevention: Clean and disinfect brooding area; use clean litter.

Viral Diseases (nonrespiratory)

Marek’s Disease

Synonyms: Acute leukosis, neural leukosis, range paralysis.

Species affected: Chickens 12–25 weeks; occasionally pheasants, quail, turkeys.

Clinical signs: Tumors causing lameness, paralysis, blindness, emaciation, diarrhea.

Transmission: Airborne in feather dander, dust, feces, saliva.

Treatment: None.

Prevention: Vaccination at hatchery; prevents tumors but not infection.

Lymphoid Leukosis

Synonyms: Visceral leukosis, big liver, LL.

Species affected: Chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, pheasants, doves.

Clinical signs: Weakness, emaciation, enlarged abdomen, greenish diarrhea.

Transmission: Egg transmission; bird contact; contaminated environment.

Treatment: None.

Prevention: Use LL-free breeders; eradicated in many commercial flocks.

Infectious Bursal Disease

Synonyms: Gumboro, IBD, infectious bursitis.

Species affected: Chickens.

Clinical signs: Sudden drop in feed and water intake, watery droppings, ruffled feathers, immunosuppression.

Transmission: Bird contact, contaminated people and equipment, airborne dust.

Treatment: No specific treatment; supportive care.

Prevention: Vaccination available.

Equine Encephalitis

Synonyms: EE, EEE, WEE.

Species affected: Birds (pheasants), mammals (horses), humans.

Clinical signs: Reduced feed intake, staggering, paralysis, blindness, tremors, high mortality.

Transmission: Infected mosquitoes (Culiseta melanura).

Treatment: None.

Prevention: Mosquito control, vaccination for birds.

Egg Drop Syndrome

Synonyms: EDS-76.

Species affected: Ducks, geese (natural hosts), chickens (susceptible).

Clinical signs: Thin-shelled or shell-less eggs, reduced egg production, no fertility or hatchability effects.

Transmission: Vertical and contaminated vaccines.

Treatment: No successful treatment; induced molting restores production.

Prevention: Good biosecurity.

Infectious Tenosynovitis

Synonyms: Viral arthritis, teno, reovirus enteritis.

Species affected: Turkeys and chickens.

Clinical signs: Lameness, swollen tendon sheaths, reluctance to move, ruptured tendons.

Transmission: Respiratory and digestive routes; virus shed in feces.

Treatment: No satisfactory treatment; tetracycline and supportive care help.

Prevention: Vaccination available.

Nonrespiratory Bacterial Diseases

Fowl Cholera

Synonyms: Avian pasteurellosis, cholera.

Species affected: Domestic fowl, game birds, cage birds, wild birds.

Clinical signs: Fever, reduced feed, mucoid mouth discharge, diarrhea, labored breathing, abscesses, swollen joints.

Transmission: Flock additions, free-flying birds, predators, rodents.

Treatment: Sulfa drugs and antibiotics; note residue concerns.

Prevention: Vaccination on endemic farms; rodent control.

Pullorum

Synonyms: Bacillary white diarrhea, BWD.

Species affected: Chickens and turkeys.

Clinical signs: Death in young chicks, diarrhea, weakness, chalk-white feces, carriers.

Transmission: Vertical and contaminated equipment.

Treatment: Flock salvage only; antibiotics reduce mortality.

Prevention: Regulatory eradication programs; testing breeder flocks.

Necrotic Enteritis

Synonyms: Enterotoxemia, rot gut.

Species affected: Young chickens and turkeys 2–12 weeks.

Clinical signs: Reduced feed, dark blood-stained feces, diarrhea, emaciation, fetid odor.

Transmission: Ingestion of bacteria from soil, feces; crowded and poor sanitation increase risk.

Treatment: Antibiotics like bacitracin, neomycin, tetracycline.

Prevention: Sanitation, husbandry, management.

Ulcerative Enteritis

Synonyms: Quail disease.

Species affected: Quail, occasionally chickens, turkeys, partridges, grouse.

Clinical signs: Acute depression, reduced feed, emaciation, watery droppings, high mortality.

Transmission: Contact with carriers, contaminated pens, feed, water, equipment, rodents.

Treatment: Bacitracin, neomycin, tetracyclines, penicillin, lincomycin; consult veterinarian.

Prevention: Depopulate, clean, disinfect, restock with clean birds.

Botulism

Synonyms: Limberneck, bulbar paralysis.

Species affected: All fowl, humans, other animals; turkey vulture resistant.

Clinical signs: Paralysis, limp neck, feather loss, death from respiratory paralysis.

Transmission: Ingestion of neurotoxin from spoiled food, decaying matter; no bird-to-bird spread.

Treatment: Remove spoiled feed; Epsom salts; potassium permanganate; antitoxin injections.

Prevention: Prompt disposal of dead birds; control flies; avoid spoiled feed.

Staphylococcus

Synonyms: Staph infection, septicemia, arthritis, bumblefoot.

Species affected: All fowl, especially turkeys, chickens, game birds, waterfowl.

Clinical signs: Septicemia, arthritis, bumblefoot; lameness, swollen joints, diarrhea.

Transmission: Soil-borne; outbreaks after storms.

Treatment: Novobiocin, erythromycin, penicillin.

Prevention: Remove injury sources; isolate affected birds; balanced nutrition.

FEEDING THE CHICKS

First 4 weeks

Chicks for layers are fed chick mash; broilers are fed broiler mash. Both are well-compounded feeds containing essential nutrients and antibiotics.

Feeding Growers

At 5 weeks, chicks are called growers and fed growers mash (layers) or broiler mash (broilers).

Broilers

Fed broiler mash until ready for slaughter at 7–8 weeks. Poor quality or quantity delays growth.

Layers

Fed growers mash until 5 months, then gradually switched to layers complete meal.

Supplementary Feeds

Broilers and layers should be provided with supplementary feeds such as green vegetables or green leaves of legumes (e.g., beans, lucerne) to provide protein and vitamin A. Leaves are tied with ropes and hung in the poultry shed.

IV. POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES

Ill health is a condition where birds are unwell, detected by abnormal appearance, appetite, and feeding behavior. Sick birds react poorly to feed and have difficulty swallowing.

Signs include diarrhea, blood-stained feces, mucous discharge from nose or mouth due to respiratory or digestive problems.

DISEASES

A condition where an individual’s physical and psychological state deviates from normal.

CAUSES OF DISEASES

Diseases may be caused by:

• Nutritional causes: Excess feed causes stomach rupture, diarrhea, constipation; underfeeding causes starvation and nutritional deficiencies.
• Living organisms: Infectious diseases caused by microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi); parasitic diseases caused by external (ectoparasites) and internal (endoparasites) parasites.

External parasites live on the bird’s surface (flies, lice, mites). Internal parasites live inside the bird (e.g., tapeworms, roundworms).

MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES

VICES

Undesirable habits of poultry include:

• Cannibalism
• Egg eating
• Toe pecking
• Feather pecking

CAUSES

• Overcrowding causing fighting and cannibalism
• High temperature and poor ventilation
• High light intensity
• Low protein levels
• Insufficient salts and minerals in feed
• Starvation

CONTROL

• Keep correct bird numbers to reduce fighting
• Supply green feeds by hanging in poultry house to reduce mineral deficiency
• Debeak birds at 4 weeks old
• Provide feed with adequate minerals and protein
• Reduce light intensity in poultry house
• Provide enough waterers and feeders to reduce fighting

VITAMINS

Vitamin A: Deficiency causes nutritional rupia with yellow-white pustules in the mouth.

Vitamin D: Calcium and phosphorus deficiency causes rickets.

PARASITES IN POULTRY

• Internal or ectoparasites
• External endoparasites

External parasites bite and suck blood causing birds to scratch. Examples include lice and mites. Internal parasites suck blood in the alimentary canal causing pale combs, wattles, and diarrhea. Examples include tapeworms, roundworms, caecum worms, and threadworms.

LIVESTOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING

Concepts

Feeds: Materials given to animals to supply nutrients.

Feeding: Process of supplying animals with feeds.

Feedstuff: Materials included in the diet of farm animals.

Balanced diet: Feed supply with the right proportion of nutrients.

Compounding of feeds: Mixing several feedstuffs to make a balanced diet.

Feed nutrients required by livestock

Livestock require six main types of feed nutrients:

• Carbohydrates: Provide energy for body temperature maintenance and production. Grains and root tubers are rich in starch; grasses are rich in fiber.
• Fats: Good energy source; facilitate intake of vitamins A, D, E, and K.
• Proteins: Important for growth, tissue repair, production of eggs, wool, milk, meat, antibodies, enzymes, hormones, skin, hair, and feathers.
• Vitamins: Essential for health, growth, bone formation, disease protection, blood clotting, and muscular activities.
• Minerals: Include calcium, chlorine, sodium, iron, sulfur, copper, zinc, manganese, potassium, phosphorus; essential for health, growth, reproduction, and development.
• Water: Transports digested food, keeps body cool, removes waste.

Classification of Feeds in Livestock

Based on nutritive value and moisture content:

• Concentrates: Highly nutritive, rich in carbohydrates and protein, low in fiber.
• Protein concentrates: Fish meal, bone meal, sunflower cake, cottonseed cake, lucerne.
• Energy concentrates: Sorghum, maize, oats, wheat.
• Specific concentrates: Contain vitamins and minerals; also called vitamin and mineral premixes or supplements.
• Roughages: High fiber content (18% crude fiber), include pasture grasses, straws, hay; main feeds for ruminants.
• Succulents: High moisture content feeds, mostly plant origin, e.g., green plants like elephant grass, fresh cassava tubers, fresh potato; low nutrient but high water content.

Livestock Feed Rationing

Ration: Combination of feedstuffs fed to an animal to meet daily nutritional requirements.

Balanced ration: Supplies nutrients needed for maintenance and production in correct amounts and proportions.

Maintenance ration: Amount required daily for survival.

Production ration: Additional ration to supply nutrients for production (wool, eggs, milk, etc.).

Factors to consider when making balanced ration

• Age of animal (young, grower, mature)
• Production type (eggs, wool, meat, fat)
• Type of animal (ruminants, non-ruminants)
• Body size (light breeds, heavy breeds)
• Breeding (parent stocks)
• Energy producing animals (draught animals)

Mixing Rations on the Farm

Methods include:

• Person’s square method
• Simultaneous equation method
• Simple variable method

Person’s Square Method

Procedure:

1. Draw a square.
2. Place desired protein % in the center (e.g., 14%).
3. Place protein % of supplement in upper left corner (e.g., 45%).
4. Place protein % of grain in lower left corner (e.g., 10%).
5. Subtract diagonally (larger minus smaller).
6. Numbers represent parts of each feedstuff.

Example: 4 parts protein supplement, 31 parts grain; in 100 kg ration, 11.4 kg supplement and 88.5 kg grain.

Adjust for vitamins and minerals as needed.

FODDER CONSERVATION

Fodder: Crops consisting of grasses and legumes used for feeding animals (e.g., guinea grass, kikuyu grass, star grass).

During wet seasons, grasses grow well; in dry seasons, growth is poor due to drought. Excess pasture is preserved for dry season feeding.